A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 


A'  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

A  Further  Revision  and  Extension 
of  the  Binet-Simon  Scale 


By 
F.  KUHLMANN 

Director,  Minnesota  Research  Bureau  in  Mental  Deficiency 
Professorial  Lecturer,  University  of  Minnesota. 


BALTIMORE 

WARWICK  &  YORK,  INC. 
1922 


Copyright,  1922,  By 
WARWICK  &  YORK,  INC. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION  1 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTORY  9 

Nature  of  the  revision.  Data  on  which  it  is 
based.  General  accuracy  of  the  scale.  Require- 
ments of  an  examiner.  Classification.  Use  of 
mental  test  results. 

CHAPTER  II 
GENERAL   PRINCIPLES   OF   THE   YEAR   SCALE  19 

Requirements  of  the  individual  tests — ob- 
jectivity; discriminative  capacity;  method  of 
scoring;  independence  of  training;  commun- 
icability;  variety.  The  construction  of  a  year 
scale — arrangmcnt  of  the  tests  in  age-groups; 
determination  of  mental  age  from  the  tests 
passed ;  correct  placement  of  tests  in  the  scale ; 
the  percentage  of  children  that  pass  when  cor- 
rectly placed;  equality  of  difficulty  of  tests  in 
an  age-group.  The  establishment  of  norms. 

CHAPTER  III 
THE  CONDUCT  otf  AN  EXAMINATION  59 

The  immediate  object.  The  importance  of 
following  directions  literally.  Control  of  the 
subject's  interest,  attention,  and  attitude.  The 
presence  of  a  third  person  in  the  examining 
room.  Recording  responses  and  taking  notes. 
Fatiguing  the  subject.  Order  of  giving  tests 
and  range  of  tests  to  be  used.  Using  the  scale 
in  abbreviated  form.  Rules  for  determining 
the  mental  age.  Determining  grade  of  intelli- 
gence. 

469690 


CHAPTER  IV 

PAG  $ 
DIRECTIONS  fou  GIVING  THE  TESTS  83 

Directions  for  giving  each  test  and  for  scor- 
ing responses.  Age-groups  3  Mos.,  6  -Mos., 
12  Mos.,  18  Mos.,  II,  III,  IV,  V,  VI,  VII, 
VIII,  IX,  X,  XI,  XII,  and  XIII-XV  years. 

CHAPTER  V 
COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  150 

Special  points  of  interest  about  each  test. 
APPENDIX  18," 

Table  of  intelligence  quotients  for  ages  and 
mental  ages  of  three  to  fifteen  years,  inclusive; 
intelligence  quotients  from  .25  to  1.50. 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

For  a  number  of  years  the  writer  of  this  Introduction, 
with  the  assistance  of  his  advanced  students  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin,  has  conducted  experiments  to  deter- 
mine the  validity  and  usefulness  of  the  Binet-Simon  scale 
for  the  measurement  of  intelligence.  As  a  result  of  this 
experimentation,  the  conclusion  has  been  reached  that 
while  the  Binet-Simon  tests  are  based  upon  sound  prin- 
ciples in  the  diagnosis  of  intelligence,  they  are  still  defect- 
ive in  certain  ways,  and  chiefly  in  two  respects.  In  the 
first  place,  the  tests  depend  too  largely  upon  verbal  re- 
sponses only  from  a  subject  under  examination.  The 
writer  has  accumulated  evidence  which  has  convinced 
him  that,  in  order  to  measure  intelligence  in  its  major 
aspects,  it  is  necessary  to  introduce  into  the  Binet-Simon 
system  tests  which  will  require  a  subject  to  perform  in 
other  ways  than  merely  to  answer  questions,  or  give  lin- 
guistic solutions  of  problems. 

Again,  it  has  become  clear  to  the  writer  that  the  method 
of  scoring  adopted  in  the  Binet-Simon  system  often 
proves  to  be  inaccurate,  for  the  reason  that  the  judgment 
of  the  scorer  is  the  main  factor  in  determining  the  value 
of  the  response  to  a  test.  In  the  writer's  experiments, 
the  plan  has  been  tried  of  having  several  examiners  pres- 
ent during  the  examination  of  a  subject.  Each  examiner 
has  estimated  the  value  of  every  response.  Often  these 
estimates  have  differed  because  each  examiner  has  been 
more  or  less  biased  in  interpreting  a  subject's  responses; 
and  so  the  predilections  and  mental  attitude  of  the  exam- 
iner has  always  to  be  taken  account  of  in  the  results  of 
an  examination.  These  variable  factors  will  of  course 
render  any  scale  for  the  measurement  of  intelligence 
somewhat  unreliable. 


1 


2  A  HANDBOOK  or  MKNTAT,  TESTS 

i 

In  attempting-  to  correct  these  defects  in  the  Binet- 
Simon  system,  the  writer  has  tested  some  devices  of  his 
own,  and  he  has  tried  out  suggestions  made  by  others 
who  have  revised  the  Binet-Simon  scale.  In  the  process 
of  looking  about  for  a  revision  of  the  scale  which  would 
give  a  larger  place  to  actual  performance  as  compared 
with  linguistic  response,  and  which  would  insure  a  higher 
degree  of  accuracy  in  scoring  the  results  of  an  examina- 
tion, the  writer  came  across  the  revision  by  Kuhlmahn, 
who  has  developed  a  modified  Binet-Simon  scale  as  an 
outgrowth  of  his  work  at  the  School  for  the  Feeble-Minded, 
Faribault,  Minnesota.  It  seemed  to  the  writer,  upon  exam- 
ination of  the  Kuhlmann  revision,  that  the  two  chief  de- 
fects in  the  Binet-Simon  scale  had  been  remedied  more 
adequately  and  satisfactorily  than  had  been  accomplished 
in  any  other  revision.  The  writer  consulted  persons  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  who  had  been  using  the 
Kuhlmann  scale,  not  only  in  respect  to  the  two  major 
points  mentioned  above,  but  also  in  regard  to  minor 
details,  and  their  testimony  confirmed  his  own  convic- 
tion,— that  Dr.  Kuhlmann  has  succeeded  in  producing  a 
very  useful  scale  for  the  measurement  of  intelligence. 

So  the  writer  requested  Dr.  Kuhlmann  to  prepare  his 
system  for  publication.  This  will  explain  how  this  book 
has  come  to  be  published.  The  writer  believes  that  it 
will  make  a  distinct  contribution  to  the  solution  of  the 
problem  of  diagnosing  intelligence.  Especial  pains  have 
been  taken  to  present  this  revised  Binet-Simon  system  in 
such  terms  and  in  such  an  arrangement  of  type,  headings 
and  paragraphing  that  it  will  be  clear  to  any  one  who 
wishes  to  use  it  how  it  is  to  be  employed,  alike  in  re- 
spect to  the  method  of  administering  the  tests  and  the 
method  of  scoring  the  results.  It  will  be  possible  for  a 
teacher,  a  student  of  psychology,  a  parent,  a  worker  in  a 
juvenile  court  or  in  an  institution  for  defectives  or 
delinquents,  to  use  the  Kuhlmann  scale  readily  and  ac- 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION  3 

curately  after  the  reading  of  this  volume.  The  use  of  the 
scale  does  not  require  an  extended  knowledge  of  the 
sciences,  especially  psychology,  upon  which  it  is  based. 
It  is  reasonable  to  assume,  considering  the  present  wide- 
spread interest  in  ways  and  means  for  measuring  intel- 
ligence accurately,  that  any  contribution  to  the  solution 
of  the  problem  will  be  welcomed  by  those  who  are  respon- 
sible for  the  care  or  teaching  or  guidance  of  the  young. 
This  book  has,  in  addition  to  other  advantages,  the  special 
advantage, — that  the  tests  have  not  been  widely  pub- 
lished in  the  newspapers,  which  has  been  the  case  with 
some  of  the  other  systems  for  diagnosing  intelligence ; 
and  this  has  rendered  them  useless  in  many  sections  of 
the  country  where  young  as  well  as  older  persons  have 
become  familiar  with  many  of  the  tests. 

M.  V.  O'SHEA. 
The  University  of  Wisconsin, 
November,  1920. 


PREFACE 

This  handbook  is  the  result  of  seven  years  of  contin- 
uous effort  on  the  part  of  the  writer  and  a  number  of 
assistants  to  improve  the  methods  of  determining  degrees 
of  mental   development   in   children  and   adults,   and  to 
keep  these  methods  at  a  point  of  maximum  efficiency. 
The  writer's  duties  as  Director  of  Research  at  the  Min- 
nesota School  for  Feeble-Minded,  and  as  psychologist  tor 
the  Minnesota  State  Department  of  Education  have  fur- 
nished   the    immediate    occasion    for    this    effort.      The 
foundation   on   which    it   rests,   however,   and   the   chief 
factor  that  has  made  the  work  possible,  has  been  the  rec- 
ognition   by   the    public    that    scientific   research    in   an 
applied  science  with  the  aim  of  improving  the  methods 
and  scope  of  its  application  pays.     The  State  of  Minne- 
sota was  the  pioneer  in  this  recognition  in  the  field  of 
applied  psychology  when  over  twenty-five  years  ago  it 
employed  a  psychologist  to  do  research  wrork  at  its  School 
for  the  Feeble-Minded.    In  more  recent  years  many  other 
states  and  cities  have  followed  her  lead,  and  today  psy- 
chological research  is  rapidly  emerging  from  the  College 
and  University  laboratory  and  getting,  a  further  adjust- 
ment in  the  environment  of  practical  application.     We 
hope  that  our  end.eavors  will  contribute  to  a  fuller  reali- 
zation of  this  progress  as  well  as  supply  an  improved 
instrument  for  immediate  use. 

Our  opportunities  for  the  study  of  methods  of  measur- 
ing mental  development  have  been  uniquely  favorable. 
The  problem  has  not  been  a  side  issue,  but  one  of  the 
fundamental  and  urgent  issues  constantly  before  us. 
Accurate,  trustworthy  diagnosis,  recognized  as  reliable  by 
both  professional  and  layman,  has  been  the  sine  qua  non 
for  the  practical  solution  of  a  great  variety  of  psycholog- 


6  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAT,  TESTS 

ical,  educational,  social,  legal,  and  philanthropic  problems. 
The  inmates  of  the  Minnesota  School  for  Feeble-Minded 
have  furnished  an  invaluable  means  of  experimentation 
with  mental  tests  and  the  evaluation  of  other  criteria  and 
methods  of  determining  degrees  of  mental  development. 
Normal  children  of  the  public  schools  have  always 
been  accessible  for  the  standardization  of  tests  and  estab- 
lishment of  norms.  A  good  number  of  competent  assist- 
ants have  been  available  to  help  in  every  phase  of  the 
work.  The  present  manual  gives  but  a  meagre  insight 
into  the  magnitude  of  the  task.  The  procedure  in  devis- 
ing new  tests  and  scales  must  still  necessarily  be  largely 
empirical.  Only  by  laboriously  trying  out  many  do  we. 
find  a  few  that  are  satisfactory.  The  numerous  tests  that 
proved  unsuccessful  are  not  discussed,  though  they  all 
contributed  to  the  final  result,  and  helped  to  reveal  gen- 
eral principles  that  will  be  very  useful  in  guiding  future 
efforts. 

The  field  of  mental  tests  has  been  one  of  intense  activi- 
ties ever  since  the  unprecedented  success  of  the  original 
Binet-Simon  scale  became  generally  known.  The  writer 
has  made  good  use  of  many  important  contributions  by 
other  workers,  which  the  references  given  can  acknowl- 
edge only  in  a  very  inadequate  way.  Special  thanks  are 
due  to  the  Minnesota  State  Board  of  Control,  whose  con- 
stant zeal  for  the  highest  efficiency  of  the  public  institu- 
tions under  its  charge,  has  led  to  giving  the  writer  a 
free  hand,  encouragement,  and  liberal  material  assistance 
in  the  pursuit  of  every  investigation  that  aimed  at  the 
increase  in  that  efficiency.  A  similar  attitude  and  pro- 
gressive views  actuated  public  school  authorities,  espe- 
cially Superintendent  John  Munroe  of  the  public  schools 
of  Faribault,  Minnesota,  to  give  unlimited  access  to  their 
schools  for  making  tests  antf  study  of  children's  records. 
Lastly,  a  number  of  assistants  have  done  the  major  part 
of  the  testing  and  have  helped  in  many  other  ways.  'Miss 


Anna  A.  Masterson,  intern  in  our  laboratory,  Miss  Minnie 
A.  Toner,  and  Miss  Carrie  Pierce,  public  school  teachers, 
gave  a  number  of  the  upper  age  tests  to  several  hundred 
normal  children.  Miss  .Frances  Lowell,  Research  Assist- 
ant, helped  to  secure  norms  for  one  of  the  tests  and  con- 
tributed statistical  data.  Miss  Maud  A.  Merrill,  Research 
Assistant,  did  a  large  part  of  the  testing  with  practically 
all  of  the  new  tests,  contributed  the  intelligence  quotient 
table  beginning  with  the  chronological  age  of  ten  years, 
and  read  the  manuscript.  Miss  Rose  Anderson,  and  Miss 
Katharine  B.  Graves,  Research  Assistants,  gave  valuable 
suggestions  concerning  the  individual  tests  and  the  direc- 
tions for  giving  them.  Finally,  my  wife  did  an  equal 
share  of  the  testing  with  all  of  the  new  tests,  and  assisted 
in  the  tabulation  of  data. 

F.  K. 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTORY 

Nature  of  the  Revision.  The  system  of  mental  tests 
presented  in  this  manual  is  a  much  revised  and  extended 
Binet-Simon  scale.  The  changes  made  cover  the  follow- 
ing points.  (1)  Standardization  of  the  procedure  in  giv- 
ing the  tests.  The  directions  for  giving  each  test  are 
made  -complete,  but  as  brief  and  explicit  as  possible.  In 
some  instances  they  are  more  detailed  than  found  in  any 
previous  revision  of  the  tests,  as  directions  to  be  followed 
under  various  special  circumstances  that  arise  occasion- 
ally have  been  added.  With  the  average  case  these  extra 
directions  are  not  needed.  This  was  made  possible  from 
the  extensive  experience  in  giving  the  tests  to  thousands 
of  cases  of  all  ages  and  grades  of  intelligence.  This  more 
detailed  standardization  of  the  procedure  in  giving  the 
tests  facilitates  their  use  by  relatively  inexperienced 
examiners,  results  in  necessary  uniformity,  and  insures 
more  ready  comprehension  on  the  part  of  the  subject 
examined  as  to  what  he  is  to  do  in  each  test. 

(2)  Correction  of  the  tendency  of  the  original  scale  to 
measure  too  high  at  its  lower  end  and  too  low  at  its 
upper  end.     The  former  required  changing  the  tests  at 
the  lower  end,   and   the  latter  required   in   addition   an 
extension  of  the  scale  upwards  and  a  different  method  of 
scoring   mental   ages   when   the   subject   passes   several 
tests  in  the  highest  age-group  of  the  scale. 

(3)  Elimination  of  nineteen  of  the  original  tests  that 
were  found  unsatisfactory  for  one  reason  or  another.  The 
following  are  the  tests  that  were  dropped  out  entirely : 

Giving  age  (Age-group  VI). 

Repetition  of  a  sentence  of  sixteen  words  (Age-group  VII). 

Copying  a  written  phrase  (Age-group  VII). 


10  A  HANDBOOK  OP  MENTAL  TJCSTS 

Counting  thirteen  pennies  (Age-group  VII). 

Reading  for  two  memories  (Age-group  VIII). 

Writing  from  dictation  (Age-group  VIII). 

Naming  the  days  of  the  week  (tAge-group  IX). 

Reading  for  six  memories  (Age-group  IX). 

Naming  the  months  of  the  year  (Age-group  X). 

Naming  nine  pieces  of  money  (Age-group  X). 

Questions  of  comprehension  (Age-group  X). 

Using  three  words  in  one  sentence  (Age-group  XI). 

Giving  sixty  words  in  three  minutes  (Age-group  XI). 

Repetition  of  seven  numerals  (Age-group  XII). 

Rhyming  words  (Age-group  XII). 

Problems  of  diverse  facts  (Age-group  XII). 

Drawing  a  cut  in  a  twice  folded  piece  of  paper  (Age-group  XIII). 

Drawing  the  figure  of  two  juxtaposed  triangles  (Age-group  XIII). 

Distinction  between  abstract  terms  (Age-group. XIII). 

(4)  Increase  in  the  number  of  tests  to  eight  in  each 
age-group  above  two  years.    This  adds  to  the  reliability 
of  the  results  obtained  in  any  individual  examination.   It 
also  makes  more  possible  the  adaptation  of  the  scale  in 
abbreviated  form  to  different  classes  of  cases  with  special 
defects   that   makes   some   of   the   tests   inapplicable,   as 
cases  with  defective  hearing  or  vision,  with  speech  defect, 
or  with  motor  incoordinations. 

With  each  of  these  classes  the  inapplicable  tests  may 
be  eliminated,  and  usually  enough  applicable  tests  remain 
to  give  a  fairly  reliable  result. 

(5)  Extension  of  the  original  scale  at  both  upper  and 
lower  ends.     The  original,  beginning  with  tests  for  the 
age  of  three  years,  did  not  serve  to  determine  mental 
ages  correctly  much  below  five.     The  present  scale  be- 
gins with  tests  for  the  age  of  three  months.     Its  incom- 
pleteness at  its  upper  end  and  its  inapplicable  method  of 
scoring  at  this  point  made  the  results  uncertain  just  at  a 
point  where  in  some  fields  of  work  certainty  was  required 
most  of  all.     With  the  original  scale  and  previous  revi- 
sions of  it  a  reliable  mental  age  could  not  be  obtained 
much  above  the  mental  age  of  ten,  that  is,  for  older  chil- 


INTRODUCTORY  11 

dren  and  adults  near  the  borderline  between  the  normal 
and  mentally  deficient. 

There  are  now  one  hundred  twenty-nine  tests,  counting 
a  repeated  test  for  each  age-group  in  which  it  is  used,  in 
place  of  the  fifty-six  tests  of  the  original  scale.  Thirty- 
seven  of  the  original  are  retained,  but  a  number  of  these 
are  modified  or  shifted  to  other  age-groups.  A  special 
effort  was  made  throughout  to  eliminate  as  far  as  possi- 
ble the  personal  factor  of  the  examiner  from  the  results 
obtained  in  an  examination.  One  •*>*  the  chief  ways  of 
doing  this  is  to  use  tests  in  which  the  scoring  of 
responses  is  simple  and  unambiguous.  Practically  all  the 
new  tests  added  for  years  above  two  score  in  terms  of 
the  time  it  takes  to  do  the  test  and  the  number  of  errors 
made.  This  anyone  can  do.  The  use  of  this  manual, 
therefore,  requires  muc'h  less  general  training  for  the 
examiner  than  does  any  other  system  of  tests. 

Data  on  which  the  Revision  is  Based.  The  revision 
represents  the  results  of  seven  years  of  continuous  work 
on  the  part  of  the  writer  and  a  number  of  assistants  en- 
gaged in  the  mental  examination  of  about  7,000  children 
and  adults.  A  single  examination  of  a  child  lasted  from 
thirty  minutes  to  over  an  hour.  Considerably  over  a 
hundred  new  tests  were  tried  out,  many  of  them  in  a 
number  of  different  forms  before  they  were  finally  accept- 
ed or  discarded.  The  preliminary  tryouts  were  usually 
made  on  inmates  of  the  Minnesota  School  for  Feeble- 
Minded,  whose  mental  ages  as  found  by  previous  tests 
were  already  known.  As  fast  as  apparently  satisfactory 
tests  were  found  they  were  tried  out  on  normal  children 
of  different  ages  to  establish  the  required  norms  and  to 
make  further  adjustments  in  the  tests  themselves.  The 
normal  children  below  school  age  were  secured  chiefly 
from  "baby  contests"  held  in  connection  with  several 
county  and  state  fairs,  from  one  state  orphans'  school, 
and  from  kindergartens  of  the  public  schools.  The  others 


12 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 


were  secured  from  the  public  schools,  including  the  High 
School.  Over  2,000  normal  children  figure  in  these  ex- 
aminations to  establish  norms  for  the  tests,  including 
the  tests  for  the  original  scale  that  were  tried  out  anew. 
The  number  of  normal  children  to  whom  each  test  of  the 
present  scale  was  given  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

3  Months 

20 

20 

20 

20 

20 

... 

6  Months 

46 

46 

46 

46 

46 

... 

12  Months 

83 

83 

83 

83 

83 

... 

... 

... 

18  Months 

98 

98 

98 

98 

98 

... 

... 

... 

II. 

71 

71 

71 

71 

71 

... 

••• 

III. 

45 

45 

45 

45 

8 

45 

9 

10 

IV. 

12 

12 

12 

12s. 

39 

41 

T 

39 

V. 

80 

80 

80 

80 

80 

152 

77 

T 

VI. 

152 

152 

152 

263 

145 

177 

147 

86 

VII. 

263 

263 

263 

263 

356 

152 

T 

356 

VIII. 

356 

T 

356 

170 

152 

T 

174 

103 

IX. 

372 

406 

354 

406 

384 

145 

T 

103 

X. 

354 

103 

79 

191 

357 

493 

154 

322 

XI. 

357 

327 

358 

493 

154 

304 

322 

333 

XII. 

79 

493 

154 

304 

322 

333 

326 

332 

XIII-XV. 

304 

322 

i 

333 

326 

62 

296 

77 

62 

INTRODUCTORY 


13 


In  this  table  the  numbers  of  the  tests,  1  to  8,  in  each 
age-group  are  given  in  the  first  line.  The  age-groups 
are  indicated  in  the  first  column  on  the  left.  The.  figures 
in  the  table  give  the  number  of  normal  children  to  whom 
each  test  was  given.  Thus,  test  4  in  age-group  VI  was 
given  to  263  children.  The  T  indicates  tests  for  which 
Term  an  secured  norms,  and  which  are  taken  from  his 
1916  revision  of  the  Binet-Simon  tests. 

General  Accuracy  of  the  Scale.  The  age  classification 
of  these  children  was  made  according  to  their  nearest 
birthday.  For  example,  all  children  from  five  years  six 
months  to  six  years  five  months  were  classed  as  six  years 
old.  The  average  of  such  a  group  was  then  so  nearly 
exactly  six,  seven,  eight,  etc.,  years  as  to  make,  the  dis- 
crepancy entirely  negligible.  The  average  mental  age  as 
found  by  the  revised  scale  for  the  children  of  each  age 
was  computed.  The  general  accuracy  of  the  tests  is 
shown  in  the  following  figures,  giving  the  comparison 
between  age  and  mental  age,  and  intelligence  quotients: 


Age 

3Mos. 

6Mos. 

12  Mos. 

18  Mos. 

2  Yrs. 

3  Yrs. 

Average  Men.  Age.. 

2.85 

7.08 

13.80 

20.16 

2.16 

3.18 

Average  'I    O 

95 

1  18 

1  15 

1  12 

1  08 

1  06 

Age 

4  Yrs. 

5  Yrs. 

6  Yrs. 

7  Yrs. 

8  Yrs. 

9Yrs. 

Average  Men.  Age.. 

4.26 

5.17 

6.04 

7.00 

8.13 

9.14 

Average  I    Q 

1  07 

1  03 

1.01 

1.00 

1  02 

1.01 

Age 

10  Yrs. 

11  Yrs. 

12  Yrs. 

13  Yrs. 

14  Yrs. 

15  Yrs. 

Average  Men.  Age.. 

10.16 

11.15 

12.00 

13.00 

14.00 

15.00 

Average  I    O     .... 

1  02 

1.01 

1.00 

1  00 

1.00 

1.00 

14  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

The  intelligence  quotient  is  the  figure  obtained  by 
dividing  the  mental  age  by  the  age,  and  should  be,  of 
course,  exactly  1.00  if  the  tests  give  exactly  correct 
mental  ages.  It  is  seen  that  these  average  intelligence 
quotients  are  above  1.00  up  to  the  age  of  four  years. 
This  is  due  to  the  "baby  contest"  children  that  were 
examined  being  brighter  than  average  children.  Had 
the  tests  been  adjusted  to  give  intelligence  quotients  of 
just  1.00  at  these  ages  with  these  results  the  tests  would 
have  measured  too  low.  A  detailed  analysis  of  the  results 
made  it  possible  to  allow  for  this,  but  it  is  possible  that 
they  are  not  as  accurately  adjusted  for  these  ages  as  for 
the  ages  above  four. 

Requirements  of  an  Examiner.  Distinction  must 
be  made  between  one  who  can  obtain  correct 
mental  ages  with  these  tests,  and  one  who  can  cor- 
rectly classify  individuals  examined  as  normal,  sub- 
normal, feeble-minded,  psychopathic,  and  so  on.  A  good 
mental  tester  may  not  be  able  to  diagnose  the  con- 
ditions to  whicli  these  other  terms  apply,  which  are 
defined  by  law  and  by  other  sciences  as  well  as  by  psy- 
chology. We  are  not  concerned  here  with  the  diagnos- 
tician in  this  sense.  In  general,  two  things  are  required 
of  a  good  mental  tester.  The  first  is  to  be  able  to  control 
the  subject  of  any  age  and  disposition  so  as  to  get  the 
best  responses  he  is  capable  of  in  the  tests.  The  second 
is  to  be  able  to  give  the  tests  correctly  and  score  the 
responses  correctly.  Many  people,  especially  school 
teachers  with  a  year  or  more  of  teaching  experience, 
possess  the  first  qualification  without  special  training. 
Others  can  acquire  it  by  intelligent  practice.  Most  fail- 
ures among  untrained  mental  testers  are  due  to  the  lack 
of  the  second  qualification.  This  is  not  because  there  is 
any  inherent  difficulty  in  giving  the  tests,  but  because 
the  person  in  question  has  not  learned  the  necessity  of 
patiently  learning  directions  and  of  practice  in  following 


INTRODUCTORY  15 

them  minutely  until  their  observance  becomes  habitual 
and  automatic.  The  chief  function  of  an  extended  psy- 
chological training  to  prepare  one  merely  for  mental  test- 
ing lies  in  inculcating  a  comprehension  of  this  necessity. 
A  few  individuals  have  or  acquire  this  qualification  read- 
ily without  any  extended  scientific  training.  Roughly, 
about  ten  per  cent,  of  grade  teachers  become  entirely  re- 
liable mental  testers  after  a  month  or  more  of  super- 
vised daily  practice.  They  must  continue  the  work, 
however,  to  keep  up  their  practice.  None  are  so  ineffi- 
cient as  mental  testers  as  not  to  be  able  to  increase  the 
accuracy  of  their  judgment  of  a  child's  intelligence  ten- 
fold, when  based  on  test  results.  These  tests  are  intended 
for  anyone  of  ordinary  intelligence  and  carefulness  who 
has  occasion  to  use  them,  as  well  as  for  the  specialist. 
The  mental  age  that  the  user  of  the  tests,  who  has  no 
special  training  for  mental  examining  other  than  prac- 
tice in  giving  the  tests,  gets  is  usually  fairly  accurate. 
Misuse  of  the  tests  consists  not  so  much  in  accepting 
this  mental  age  as  reliable,  as  in  accepting  such  an  exam- 
iner's interpretation  of  this  result,  and  in  placing  him 
in  the  position  of  the  specialist.  To  fill  the  position  of  a 
mental  examiner  graduation  from  a  good  university 
with  specialization  along  the  necessary  lines,  and  some 
practical  experience,  should  be  the  minimum  require- 
ment. 

Classification.  Assuming  that  mental  age  and  intel- 
ligence quotient  have  been  correctly  determined,  they 
can  be  made  a  basis  of  classification  under  different 
grades  of  intelligence.  The  intelligence  quotient  fur- 
nishes a  much  better  basis  for  this  than  does  the  mental 
age.  The  mental  age  indicates  the  general  abilities  of 
the  child  at  the  time  of  the  examination,  but  not  what 
they  are  likely  to  develop  into.  If  a  child  of  eight 
has  a  mental  age  of  six  he  has  in  general  the  abilities  of 
the  average  normal  child  that  is  six  years  old.  But  his 


16  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MICNTAT,  TESTS 

mental  age  is  not  likely  to  remain  six.  The  intelligence 
quotient  on  the  whole  remains  roughly  the  same,  and 
therefore  tells  us  something  about  what  his  future  and 
final  mental  age  is  likely  to  be.  .For  feeble-minded  chil- 
dren as  generally  found  in  institutions  there  is  a  general 
tendency  for  the  intelligence  quotient  to  decrease  some 
with  years.  The  intelligence  quotient  is,  however,  only 
a  rough  guide  for  making  predictions  in  individual  cases. 
Individual  children  vary  much  in  their  rate  of  mental 
development  at  different  ages,  and  repeated  examina- 
tions alone  can  determine  with  certainty  what  the  final 
grade  of  intelligence  of  a  child  will  be.  Keeping  these 
considerations  in  mind,  we  may  attribute  the  following 
limits  in  intelligence  quotients  to  different  grades  of  in- 
telligence commonly  described  in  other  terms. 

Grade  Terms.  Range  in  I.  Q. 

Idiots    0-24 

Imbeciles    25-  4l» 

Morons   50-74 

Borderline    75-84 

Dull    85-94 

Average    95-104 

Bright  105-114 

Very   bright 115-124 

Superior   125-149 

Very  superior 150-174 

Precocious   175  and  over. 

The  first  three  of  these  grades  are  grades  of  feeble- 
mindedness. There  is  no  complete  agreement  yet  as 
to  just  where  the  line  should  be  drawn  between  morons 
and  borderline  cases.  Some  place  it  at  70  instead  of  at 
74.  Others  put  so  much  stress  on  factors  other  than 
grade  of  intelligence  as  to  draw  the  line  considerably 
higher  or  lower  in  individual  cases.  The  writer  believes 


INTRODUCTORY  17 

that  any  case  of  mental  arrest  with  an  intelligence  of  74 
or  lower  may  under  any  circumstance  be  properly  classi- 
fied as  feeble-minded,  and  that  some  in  the  borderline 
group  must  also  be  treated  as  such  because  of  other 
unfavorable  traits  combined  with  their  mental  retarda- 
tion. The  grades  of  intelligence  proper  for  special 
classes  for  mentally  retarded  in  the  public  schools 
depends  on  what  it  is  aimed  to  do  with  these  special 
classes.  In  general,  children  with  intelligence  quotients 
from  50  to  about  85  fit  in  best  with  the  work  of  such 
classes.  Children  of  lower  grades  than  this  are  not  capa- 
ble of  doing  enough  three  R  work  to  make  it  worth  while 
trying  to  teach  them  any  and  to  exclude  all  three  R  work 
is  not  always  practical.  Cases  with  an  intelligence  of 
less  than  50  are  more  properly  institution  cases.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  advisable  to  draw  the  line  rather  high 
for  the  upper  end  so  as  to  include  some  cases  who  because 
of  reasons  other  than  lack  of  intelligence  do  not  do  bet- 
ter school  work  than  many  with  still  less  intelligence, 
and  are  therefore  from  a  pedagogical  standpoint  as  much 
out  of  place  in  classes  with  normals  as  are  those  of 
lower  grade.  Moreover,  the  special  class  should  serve  to 
furnish  an  observation  period  for  borderline  cases,  in 
order  to  determine  their  final  classification  with  greater 
certainty. 

Use  of  Mental  Test  Results.  The  application  of  men- 
tal test  results  is  unlimited,  for  there  are  few  circum- 
stances in  which  it  would  not  be  desirable  or  of  value  to 
know  the  degree  of  intelligence  of  an  individual,  child 
or  adult.  The  public  schools,  however,  furnish  the  place 
and  chief  occasion  for  making  the  examinations.  Here 
all  become  available  for  that  purpose,  and  here  also 
arises  the  first  important  occasion  for  taking  a  child's 
grade  of  intelligence  into  account.  If  all  were  examined 
here  many  social  and  other  problems  concerning  their* 
later  lives  might  be  solved.  The  first  serious  use  of 


18  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

mental  test  results  was  in  the  classification  of  subnormal 
children  in  the  public  schools.  The  great  impetus  to  the 
further  development  of  mental  tests  originated  in  their 
demonstrated  usefulness  in  this  field.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  the  scope  of  their  application  has  not  developed  in 
proportion.  But  this  is  a  matter  of  time.  If  present  ten- 
dencies are  indicative  of  the  future  a  mental  test  exam- 
ination for  every  public  school  child  will  soon  be  the 
common  practice,  if  it  is  not  universally  demanded  by 
legislation.  It  is  known  that  there  are  approximately 
as  many  children  above  average  intelligence  as  there  are 
below,  and  it  is  more  important  to  take  advantage  of 
brilliancy  than  to  try  to  salvage  dullness.  In  .the  school 
grades  as  at  present  organized  there  are  practically  always 
children-  of  about  five  different  mental  ages  in  any  one 
grade,  assumed  by  the  schools  to  be  alike  capable  to  do 
the  work  of  the  grade  they  are  in  sufficiently  well  to  pass 
into  the  next  higher  at  the  end  of  each  year.  To  only 
about  a  third  of  them  is  the  school  work  properly 
adjusted.  The  grouping  of  the  children  exclusively  by 
mental  ages  instead  of  by  their  chronological  ages  would 
correct  more  than  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  these  misplace- 
ments. 


CHAPTER  II 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE 

By  the  year  scale  is  meant  a  scale  of  measurement  that 
measures  in  terms  of  number  of  years  of  average  devel- 
opment, and  expresses  the  result  of  a  measurement  in 
terms  of  mental  age.  Binet  was  the  first 'to  devise  such  a 
scale.  His  contribution,  with  that  of  his  co-worker, 
Simon,  however,  consisted  chiefly  of  the  working  out  of. 
a  series  of  tests  and  their  combination  into  a  scale,  that 
actually  determined  the  mental  ages  of  children.  In  pro- 
ducing this  scale  their  method  seems  to  have  been  almost 
entirely  empirical.  By  results,  they  finally  found  a  num- 
ber of  tests  that  served  the  purpose  of  making  a  scale, 
ranging  from  the  ages  of  three  to  thirteen.  The  prin- 
ciples involved  in  such  a  scale  were  not  discussed  by  these 
authors.  What  we  know  of  these  principles  today  is  the 
contribution  of  a  number  of  later  writers.  x  By  degrees 
we  are  learning  that  what  at  first  seemed  to  be  a  very 
simple  instrument  is  in  reality  most  complicated.  The 
rational  grounds  for  it  are  by  no  means  yet  all  worked 
out,  but  many  of  the  earlier  criticisms,  favorable  and 

1.     See  especially  the  following: 

Stern,  W.  The  Psychological  Methods  of  Testing  Intelligence.  Trans, 
by  G.  M.  Whipple,  Educational  Psychology  Monographs,  No.  13,  War- 
wick &  York,  Baltimore,  1914. 

Terman,  L.  M.,  and  others.  The  Stanford  Revision  and  Extension 
of  the  Binet-Simon  Scale  for  Measuring  Intelligence.  Educational 
Psychology  Monographs,  No.  18,  Warwick  &  York,  Baltimore,  1917. 

— .  Psychological  Principles  underlying  the  Binet-Simon  Scale 
and  Some  Practical  Considerations  for  its  Correct  Use.  J.  Psycho- 
Asthenics,  1912. 

Pintner,  R.,  ;-nd  Paterson,  D.  C.  A  Scale  of  Performance  Tests. 
D.  Appleton  and  Co.,  New  York,  1917. 

Bobertag,  O.  Ucbcr  Intelligenzprufnngcn  (nach  der  Methode  von  Binct 
und  Simon).  Zeitschr.  f.  angew.  Psychol.  1911,  and  1912. 

.      Quclques  Reflexions  mcthodologiques   a  propos   de   I'echelle 

mctrique  de  rintclligcncc  de  Binet-Simon.     L  'Annee  Psychologique,  191k. 

Kuhlmann,  F.  The  Present  Status  of  the  Binct'-Simon  Tests  of 
Intelligence  of  Children.  J.  Psycho-Asthenics,  1912. 

.     Degree   of  Mental  Deficiency  in   Children   as  Expressed   by 

the  Relation  of  Age  to  Mental  Age.    J.  Psycho-Asthenics,  1913. 

19 


20  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

unfavorable,  are  now,  in  the  light  of  a  better  understand- 
ing of  the  scale,  seen  to  be  unfounded,  or  irrelevant.  A 
partial  knowledge  of  these  principles  has  also  led  to  much 
constructive  work  now  expressed  in  several  different  re- 
visions of  the  original  scale,  and  in  a  few  attempts  to  offer 
substitutes  and  supplementary  tests.  Further  work  need 
not  be  entirely  empirical,  but  may  be  guided  by  the 
knowledge  of  some  fundamental  requirements,  the  strict 
observance  of  which  will  be  labor  saving  and  lead  to  a 
more  rapid  progress  than  has  heretofore  been  possible. 
These  will  !be  discussed  under  the  following  headings : 
(1)  Requirements  of  the  individual  test.  (2)  The  con- 
struction of  a  year  scale.  (3)  The  establishment  of 
norms. 

Requirements  of  the  Individual  Test.  The  now  very 
extensive  experience  with  the  tests  of  the  Bjnet-Simon 
scale  has  brought  to  the  foreground  certain  essential 
traits  that  a  test  must  possess  in  order  to  be  entirely 
satisfactory  and  free  from  objection.  It  should  be  noted 
at  the  outset  that  few,  if  any,  tests  now  in  use  embody  all 
these  essentials.  Practically  every  test  is  a  compromise, 
but  all  can  now  in  a  measure  be  judged  beforehand  in  the 
light  of  past  experience. 

Objectivity.  The  first  among  the  several  requirements 
to  be  enumerated  is  objectivity.  The  test  must  be  of  such 
a  nature  that  different  persons  using  it  will  get  the  same 
results  with  it  when  other  conditions  are  the  same.  The 
personal  factor  of  the  examiner  may  be  noted  as  one  of 
the  chief  disturbing  elements  that  differentiates  the 
mental  measurement  from  the.  physical.  It  is  therefore 
one  of  the  first  things  that  calls  for  control  and  elimina- 
tion as  far  as  possible.  Binct  warned  against  this.  He 
cautions  his  readers  against  regarding  his  scale  as  an 
automatic  measuring  machine,  and  requires  that  the  user 
should  have  a  considerable  training  in  psychology  and 


PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        21 


pedagogy,  and  that  for  such  trained  examiner  much  is 
left  to  'his  'judgment  in  making  a  diagnosis.1  Since  the 
Binet  Scale  came  into  use  the  chief  source  of  opposition 
has  been  the  objections  to  the  untrained  examiner,  rather 
than  to  other  shortcomings  of  the  scale  itself.  The  fault 
has  been  very  largely  remedied  in  later  revisions  of  the 
scale,  for  the  original  was  hopelessly  incomplete  in  direc- 
tions for  its  use,  which  have  now  been  supplied.  2  But 
much  remains  yet  to  be  done.  To  make  a  test  entirely 
objective  in  its  administration,  directions  for  giving  it  and 
for  scoring  responses  must  be  complete  and  easily  fol- 
lowed in  all  cases.  The  test  itself  must  be  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  allow  of  a  simple  and  brief  statement  of 
what  the  child  is  to  do,  that  will  not  call  for  variation  or 
repetition  in  ways  that  must  be  left  to  the  examiner's 
judgment.  It  must  also  be  inherently  interesting  to  the 
child  or  such  that  a  sufficient  motive  for  maximum  effort 
can  be  readily  established  by  the  examiner,  for  the  latter 
must  control  the  child  as  well  as  give  the  tests.  Com- 
pleteness of  instruction  to  the  child  eliminates  unforseen 
ways  of  misunderstanding  the  task  set  and  the  necessity 
of  corrections  and  supplementary  explanations.  Brevity 
of  statement  is  required  to  insure  attention.  To  listen 
attentively  to  lengthy  instructions  is  itself  a  very  diffi- 
cult task  for  children,  in  which  they  very  readily  fail. 
To  secure  both  completeness  and  brevitv  it  is  necessary 
often  to  break  up  the  directions  into  several  steps,  and 
have  the  child  perform  the  total  task  in  corresponding 
steps. 


1.  See    Binet,    A.    and    Simon,    Th.      The    Development    of    Intelligence    of 
children.     Trans,  by  Elizabeth  S.   Kite.     Publication  of  the  Training:  School  at 
Vineland,  New  Jersey,  Department  of  Research.     No.  11,  1916,  p.  239. 

2.  Sec   Knhlmann,   F.      A    h'erixion   of  the   Hinct-Simon  Svstem    for  Mcasnr- 
inn  the  Intelligence  of  Children.     J.  T'syrho-. \sihenics.  Mono'gr.  Suppl.,   1913. 

Terman,   L.   M.-     The   Mi-asiircnieiit   of  InlclHucncc..      Iloughton,   Mifllin   Co., 


1916. 


22  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAI,  TESTS 

In  scoring  the  responses  to  a  test  there  is  more  occasion 
for  the  personal  factor  of  the  examiner's  judgment  to 
enter  than  there  is  in  giving  the  test.     Tests  should  be 
*of  such  a  nature  as  to  eliminate  this.    The  most  effective 
way  is  to  choose  tests  that  require  a  time  and  error  score 
only  or  one  of  these  alone.     Here  the  scoring  reduces 
itself  to  counting  the  number  of  errors  made,  and  taking 
the  time  with  a  stop-watch.     When  a  great  variety  of 
responses  to  a  test  is  possible,  such  as  with  definitions  of 
words,  or  when  the  performance  may  be  one  of  many 
grades,  such  as  drawing  a  square,  uniformity  of  scoring 
may  be  enhanced  by  describing  and  classifying  the  dif- 
ferent grades  of  responses,  giving  copious  illustrations 
under  each  class.    But  this  procedure  is  at  best  an  incom- 
plete remedy.  In  the  original  Binet- Simon  scale  fully  a  third 
of  the  tests  were  more  or  less  affected  by  this  difficulty  in 
scoring  responses.    In  different  revisions  of  it  many  new 
tests  have  been  introduced  that  are  equally  at  fault  in 
this  respect.     In  the  scale  of  tests  of  the  present  writer 
every  effort  has  been  made  to  reduce  this  factor.     The 
large  number  of  new  tests  introduced  that  score  directly 
in  terms  of  time  and  error  will  indicate  the  importance 
given  to  this  matter.     Many  otherwise  good  tests  have 
been  suggested  and  used  by  different  examiners.     It  is 
not  always  possible  to  decide  between  a  relatively  poor 
test  with  a  time  and  error  score  only  and  a  good  test  that 
has  the  one  fault  of  difficulty  of  scoring  responses  uni- 
formly.    Much  also  depends  on  the  amount  of  special 
training  and  experience  with  the  tests  that  is  presupposed 
on  the  part  of  the  examiner.    None  is  required  to  score  in 
terms  of  time  and  error.     On  the  other  hand,  no  amount 
of  it  will  entirely  eliminate  the  personal  factor  in  scoring 
the  other  kind  of  test. 

Discriminative    Capacity.      The   one   fundamental    re- 
quirement    of     the     individual     test     is     discriminative 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        23 

capacity.  Most  of  the  other  traits  to  be  discussed  are 
directly  or  indirectly  means  to  this  end.  By  discrimina- 
tive capacity  is  meant  the  ability  to  distinguish  with  it 
between  different  amounts  of  mental  development.  If 
the  test  is  such  that  the  responses  to  it  can  be  scored  only 
as  passes  or  as  failures,  and  are  not  gradable  into  a  series 
of  increasing  scores,  its  discriminative  capacity  is  meas- 
ured by  the  increase  in  the  percentage  of  average  children 
from  one  age  to  the  next  that  pass  it.  If  it  is  of  the 
type  that  yields  a  series  of  scores,  such  as  a  time  and 
error  score  that  improves  with  age,  its  discriminative 
capacity  can  in  addition  to  the  former  method  be  meas- 
ured also  by  the  percent  improvement  in  this  S'core  from 
one  age  to  the  next.  It  is  granted  that  the  discrimina- 
tive capacity  of  any  individual  test  can  in  no  case  be 
absolute,  unless  the  two  amounts  of  mental  development, 
that  is,  the  two  ages  to  be  discriminated  with  it  are  very 
different.  In  other  words,  not  all  the  children  of  one 
age  would  pass  any  test  and  all  children  of  the  next  lower 
age  fail  in  it.  In  place  of  this  we  have  only  a  certain  in- 
crease in  the  percentage  of  children  of  one  age  passing 
it  over  the  percentage  of  children  a  year  younger  that 
pass  it.  This  discriminative  capacity  for  any  two  con- 
secutive ages  depends  on  other  things  besides  the  nature 
of  the  test  itself.  Two  of  these  need  to  be  noted  at  this 
point.  The  first  is  age,  and  probably  results  mostly  from 
the  fact  that  younger  children  develop  faster  than  older. 
According  to  this,  thej  increase  in  the  percentage  of  chil- 
dren passing  a  test  from  one  age  to  the  next  is  the  higher 
the  younger  the  children.  For  very  young  children  an 
increase  of  thirty  percent  is  not  uncommon.  For  chil- 
dren approaching  mental  maturity  a  five  percent  increase 
is  a  good  average.  The  change  in  this  increase  from 
younger  to  older  children  seems  to  be  gradual.  It  should, 
of  course,  follow  very  closely  the  change  in  the  rate  of 
mental  development  which  determines  the  decreasing 


24  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

amount  of  mental  development  during  a  year  with  in- 
creasing age.  The  second  factor  on  which  discriminative 
capacity  depends  is  the  degree  of  difficulty  the  task  in  the 
test  presents.  In  general,  relatively  difficult  tests  give  a 
greater  increase  in  percent  passing  of  children  of  a  next 
higher  age  than  do  relatively  easy  tests.  Or,  to  refer 
it  to  the  kind  of  test  that  allows  a  series  of  scores,  the 
improvement  in  the  score  from  one  age  to  the  next  is 
large  for  the  younger  children  and  decreases  as  the  test 
is  applied  to  older  and  still  older  children.  In  consider- 
ing these  facts  it  must  be  remembered,  of  course,  that 
degree  of  difficulty  of  a  test  is  itself  measured  by  what 
children  of  different  ages  can  do  with  it.  The  increase 
for  the  older  children  is  relatively  small  because  the  test 
is  for  them  relatively  easy. 

The  degree  of  discriminative  capacity  that  must  be 
required  of  a  test  in  order  to  be  regarded  as  satisfactory 
depends  on  the  scale  of  tests  of  which  it  is  a  part,  and 
is  directly  proportional  to  the  total  number  of  tests  in 
}  the  scale.  The  more  numerous  the  tests  the  less  dis- 
criminative each  individual  test  needs  to  be.  In  the  year 
scale  it  is  also  naturally  higher  the  lower  down  in  the 
scale  the  test  is  located.  A  relatively  very  small  number 
of  tests  each  of  which  has  a  high  discriminative  capacity 
may  yield  as  accurate  results  in  mental  measurement  as 
would  a  much  larger  number  of  tests  each  of  which  has 
a  lower  discriminative  capacity.  The  exact  mathematical 
relationships  involved  here  have  not  yet  been  worked 
out.  Conditions  are  so  complex  as  to  make  this  task 
very  difficult,  if  not  impossible..  In  the  practical  work 
of  devising  tests  and  constructing  a  scale  the  achieve- 
ments have  always  fallen  considerably  short  of  the  ideals 
aimed  at  in  this  matter  of  the  percentage  of  children  of 
given  ages  that  pass  each  test  at  different  points  in  the 
scale. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        25 

Method  of  Scoring.  The  method  of  scoring  the  indi- 
vidual test  always  needs  careful  consideration.  It  should 
be  so  scored  as  to  give  it  the  greatest  possible  discrim- 
inative capacity.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  different 
kinds  of  tests  in  actual  use  can  be  grouped  into  three 
classes,  when  only  an  error  score  is  involved,  to  which 
a  fourth  class  must  be  added  which  combines  the  time 
and  error  scores  into  one.  These  three  classes  are  (1) 
tests  of  one  trial  only,  and  in  which  the  respo'nse  can 
be  scored  only  as  a  complete  failure  or  as  a  complete 
success ;  (2)  tests  giving  several  trials  on  the  same  task ; 
(3)  tests  giving  several  trials  of  tasks  not  of  the  same 
degree  vof  difficulty.  Since  tests  of  the  first  class  can  be 
scored  only  in  one  way  they  need  not  be  considered  fur- 
ther. For  the  second  and  third  classes  different  pro- 
cedures in  scoring  are  evidently  possible.  Binet  and 
Simon  followed  the  general  rule  of  giving  a  child  the 
same  amount  of  credit  no  matter  whether  he  passed  one, 
two,  or  three  trials  of  the  same  task  in  a  test.  In  repeat- 
ing five  numerals  from  memory,  for  instance,  the  child 
is  given  three  trials  with  three  different  series  of  five 
numerals  each.  We  may  assume  that  these  three  series 
are  of  equal  difficulty  and  are  therefore,  three  trials  on 
the  same  task.  The  child  is  scored  a  pass  if  he  suc- 
ceeds in  one  trial,  and  he  gets  no  more  credit  if  he  suc- 
ceeds in  all  three  trials.  This  has  seemed  to  some  a 
wrong  method  of  scoring  a  test.1  It  has  been  held  that 
a  child  should  receive  more  credit  than  another  if  he 
succeeds  in  more  trials  than  another.  We  believe  that 
the  latter  is,  on  the  whole,  a  mistaken  view.  But  grant- 
ing its  correctness  for  the  moment,  the  question  arises 
as  to  how  much  more  credit  a  child  shall  be  allowed  for 
each  additional  trial  in  which  he  succeeds.  To  make 


1.  Yerkes,  R.  M.;  Bridges,  J.  W.,  and  Hardwick,  Rose.  A  Point  Scale  fctr 
Measuring  Mental  Ability.  Warwick  and  York,  Baltimore,  1915. 

A  number  of  writers  have  since  expressed  their  preference  for  the  "Point 
Scale"  method  of  scoring. 


26  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

the  credit  directly  proportional  to  the  number  of  trials 
passed  is  not  permissible.  It  would  be  quite  wrong  to 
give  A  twice  the  amount  of  credit  in  a  test  as  B  be- 
cause he  passed  in  twice  as  many  trials.  Such  a  pro- 
cedure would  prove  to  be  incorrect  even  when  the  dif- 
ferent trials  are  not  of  the  same  degree  of  difficulty  and 
represent  virtually  a  graded  series  of  different  tests.  Sup- 
pose B,  for  example,  to  be  just  unable  to  repeat  five 
numerals.  It  would  not  matter  much  how  many  trials 
he  were  given ;  he  would  fail  in  all  if  he  were  really  inca- 
pable of  performing  this  task.  Suppose  A,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  be  just  capable  of  repeating  five  numerals.  It 
would  not  matter  how  many  trials  he  were  given;  he 
would  pass  in  most  and  fail  only  as  his  effort  or  other 
condition  varied,  for  what  he  can  do  once  he  can  do 
again,  and  any  number  of  times.  In  this  case  the  real 
difference  in  the  abilities  of  A  and  B  is  very  small,  but 
the  difference  in  the  scores  they  would  get  would  be 
limited  only  by  the  number  of  trials  given  A.  The  Binet- 
Simon  method  of  scoring  this  kind  of  a  test  is  undoubted- 
ly on  the  whole  correct.  Success  in  one  trial  proves  the 
child's  ability  to  perform  the  task  involved.  Repeated 
successes  in  the  same  task  in  further  trials  proves  no 
more.  Failure  in  one  or  more  trials  when  there  has  been 
success  in  one  or  more  shows  rather  that  some  disturb- 
ance has  entered  causing  him  to  fail.  Usually,  and  es- 
pecially for  young  children,  this  means  simply  inatten- 
tion and  varying  effort.  While  it  is  true  that  this  is  a 
trait  of  young  children  and  should  be  measured  by  the 
tests,  it  should  not  be  a  factor  in  every  test  of  this  sort, 
4est  too  many  of  the  tests  measure  one  and  the  same  trait. 
Possibly  for  older  children  that  are  approaching  mental 
maturity  the  Binet-Simon  method  of  scoring  this  kind  of 
a  test  is  not  the  best,  The  way  to  find  out  which  method 
is  best  is  to  determine  which  method  gives  the  test  the 
greatest  discriminative  capacity.  Arbitrarily  allotting 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        27 

more  credit  for  more  trials  of  the  same  task  passed  is 
wrong  in  principle. 

The  Binet-Simon  scale  included  a  few  tests  of  the  third 
class,  and  which  were  scored  in  the  same  way  as  those  of 
the  second.  It  is  not  so  easy  to  justify  in  theory  this 
method  in  this  case.  If  the  different  trials  really  repre- 
sent tasks  of  different  degrees  of  difficulty,  different 
amounts  of  credit  should  be  allowed  for  them  in  scoring, 
or,  what  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  the  different  trials 
should  be  treated  as  different  tests.  It  is  undoubtedly 
easier  for  children  to  name  the  coins  of  the  smaller 
denominations  than  it  is  to  name  the  larger,  and  easier 
to  give  the  day  of  the  week  than  the  day  of  the  month 
within  three  days  of  correct.  If  the  tests  are  to  be  used 
in  a  year  scale,  the  question  really  becomes  that  of 
whether  or  not  these  several  parts  of  a  test  of  this  sort 
are  different  enough  in  degree  of  difficulty  to  separate 
them  by  as  much  as  a  year.  If  they  are  not,  no  serious 
disturbance  of  the  scale  can  result  by  scoring  this  kind 
of  test  in  the  same  way  as  the  test  of  the  preceding  class. 
The  best  procedure  must  be  determined  empirically 
by  finding  out  what  method  gives  the.  test  the  greatest 
discriminative  capacity. 

The  correct  scoring  of  the  test  that  uses  both  a  time 
and  error  score  involves  more  complex  considerations, 
but  can  also  be  reduced  to  a  very  simple  rule.  In  the 
first  place  it  is  necessary  to  combine  the  time  and  error 
scores  into  one  score  in  order  to  use  the  result  as  that 
of  a  single  test.  Time  scores  are  in  themselves  probably  more 
a  measure  of  the  amount  of  effort  and  steadiness  of  atten- 
tion than  are  error  scores.  Tests  with  time  scores  are 
therefore  more  applicable  with  older  children  approach- 
ing mental  maturity  than  they  are  with  younger  chil- 
dren. Effort  and  attention  are  mental  functions  that 
develop  relatively  late,  and  different  degrees  of  them 
are  distinguishing  traits  of  older  children  more,  than  of 


28  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

the  younger.  But  the  relative  importance  of  the  time 
and  error  score  depends  also  directly  on  the  nature  of 
the  test.  For  almost  any  age  the  time  score  is  more  im- 
portant than  the  error  score  in  some  tests,  while  the 
reverse  is  true  in  other  tests.  Importance  here  is  meas- 
ured again  by  discriminative  capacity.  If  the  average 
time  score  improves  more  from  one  year  to  the  next  than 
does  the  error  score  then  the  time  score  is  the  more  im- 
portant. There  are  some  tests,  in  fact,  in  which  either 
the  time  or  the  error  score  will  improve  with  increasing 
age  of  the  children  tested,  while  the  other  will  remain 
constant  or  even  become  poorer  with  increasing  age. 
There  are  some  tasks,  for  instance,  in  which  older  chil- 
dren naturally  tend  to  exercise  greater  care,  thus  making 
much  less  errors,  but  at  so  great  an  expense  of  time 
that  the  time  score  becomes  actually  poorer.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  tasks  in  which  the  number  of  errors 
likely  to  be  made  is  related  directly  to  speed  of  per- 
formance. At  a  certain  stage,  for  a  certain  age,  the  task 
becomes  easy  enough  to  perform  somehow  at  a  great 
increase  of  speed,  but  this  increase  in  speed  involves  a 
disproportionate  number  of  errors.  There  are  practice 
stages  in  many  complex  tasks  of  skill,  typewriting  for 
example,  in  which  the  possible  increase  in  speed  is  more 
than  counterbalanced  by  the  number  of  errors  made. 
When  applied  to  tests  for  children  of  different  ages  this 
sometimes  results  in  the  error  score  becoming  poorer 
instead  of  better  with  the  older  children.  The  first  re- 
quirement of  a  test  with  both  a  time  and  an  error  score 
is  that  both  scores  improve  with  age,  or  at  least  that  one 
improve  and  the  other  remain  constant.  Tests  that  do- 
not  meet  this  requirement  must  be  eliminated.  The  next 
thing  to  do  is  to  determine  which  score,  time  or  error, 
by  itself  gives  the  test  the  greater  discriminative  capacity, 
and  how  much.  This  done,  a  formula  for  combining  the 
two  scores  should  be  so  constructed  that  each  score 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        29 

counts  in  the  combined  time  and  error  score  in  propor- 
tion to  its  discriminative  capacity.  To  do  this  involves 
still  another  adjustment.  It  is  usually  more  convenient 
to  score  the  time  in  terms  of  seconds  rather  than  min- 
utes. A  time  score  may  therefore  be,  for  example,  100 
while  the  error  score  is  10.  If  the  time  and  error  score 
are  to  count  for  the  same  evidently  the  formula  must 
take  a  multiple  of  one  or  the  other  score  in  place  of  the 
absolute  figure.  In  the  case  given  a 'convenient  form 
would  be  ~  +  E.  If  in  this  test,  however,  it  was  found 
that  the  error  score  alone  gave  the  test  twice  the  dis- 
criminative capacity  that  the  time  score  alone  did,  the 
formula  might  be  ^  +  E,  or  T  +  20  E. 

Independence  of  Training.  Among  the  criticisms 
against  the  Binet-Simon  tests  none  has  been  made  oftener 
than  that  they  are  too  dependent  on  training;  that  they 
measure  too  much  the  amount  of  training  the  child  may 
or  may  not  have  had  in  the  particular  tasks  involved 
in  the  tests,  and  not  his  real  mental  development.  It  has 
been  made  a  requirement  of  a  good  test  that  it- be  inde- 
pendent of  training.  The  real  facts  involved  here  have 
been  difficult  to  unravel.  It  has  not  been  clear  as  to 
what  is  to  be  meant  by  "dependence  on  training."  Taken 
literally,  all  tests  are  and  must  be  dependent  on  training. 
There  is  no  mental  development  without  mental  con- 
tent, and  no  motor  ability  without  motor  training.  Also, 
for  the  child  to  understand  the  examiner  when  he  tells 
him  what  to  do  in  a  test,  and  to  respond  in  words  or 
acts  requires  mental  and  motor  activities  that  have  been 
acquired  by  training.  Instead  of  being  independent  of 
training  in  this  sense,  all  tests  can  aim  simply  to  deter- 
mine the  effects  of  training  and  no  more.  But  according 
to  the  capacities  of  different  children  these  effects  are 
much  or  little,  and  thus  the  tests  come  to  measure  these 
capacities,  capacity  here  bejng  simply  another  term  for 


30  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

intelligence.  The  requirement,  therefore,  cannot  be  in- 
dependence of  training,  but  only  independence  of  a  wide- 
ly variable  training.  Tests  that  determine  directly  the 
effect  of  a  particular  kind  of  training  may  still  be  good 
tests  if  the  tasks  involved  are  such  that  all  children 
have  had  the  same  amount  of  training  in  them.  This  re- 
sults in  three  kinds  of  tests  to  which  the  criticism  of  de- 
pendence on  training  does  not  apply.  The  first  consists  of 
tasks  which  all  children  have  had  sufficient  opportunity  to 
learn  to  do,  and  can  or  cannot  do  according  to  their 
capacity  to  learn.  The  second  consists  of  tasks  which 
no  children  have  had  sufficient  opportunity  to  learn  to 
do  merely  through  practice.  The  third  consists  of  tasks 
that  are  of  such  a  nature  that  attempts  to  learn  to  do 
them,  practice,  does  not  materially  affect  the  ability  to 
do  them.  The  last  kind  alone  could  in  any  sense  ^ be 
regarded  as  independent  of  training,  when  by  training 
a  special, training  is  meant.  Tests  belonging  to  the  first 
class  apply  chiefly  to  young  children,  and  hardly  at  all 
to  older  children.  There  are  many  things  which  all  chil- 
dren must  learn  to  do  while  young,  and  have  sufficient 
opportunity  to  learn  and  will  learn  if  they  can.  All  must 
learn  to  use  the  sense  organs,  and  muscles,  to  walk, 
talk,  feed,  and  clothe  themselves,  recognize  and  learn  the 
use  of  things  found  in  every  household,  and  so  on.  The 
degree  in  which  any  child  fails  to  acquire  these  things 
is  a  measure  of  his  inability  to  learn.  As  children  be- 
come older  their  abilities  become  more  specialized.  There 
remain  fewer  tasks  for  them  to  learn  to  do  that  are 
common  to  all,  and  the  measurement  of  their  mental 
development  becomes  dependent  more  on  the  other  kinds 
of  tests. 

It  has  been  found  impossible  to  determine  by  inspec- 
tion and  a  priora  analysis  alone  whether  a  test  is  unduly 
influenced  by  special  training  or  lack  of  it  with  different 
children.  There  has  been  the  greatest  lack  of  agreement 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        31 

among  critics  as  to  which  tests  belong  to  this  class  and 
which  do  not,  because  their  views  have  been  based  only 
on  such  inspection  and  analysis.  The  question  must  be 
determined  in  each  case  chiefly  by  the  results  in  the  test 
given.  If  these  are  satisfactory,  as  judged  by  all  the  cri- 
teria of  tests,  the  presumption  is  against  the  test  being 
influenced  by  variable  training.  A  good  method  is  to 
group  the  children  already  examined  into  bright  and  dull 
as  found  by  all  the  tests,  and  then  determine  how  well 
the  results  of  the  particular  test  in  question  agree  with 
this  grouping  of  the  children.  Discriminative  capacity 
of  the  test  as  indicated  alone  by  the  percentage  of  chil- 
dren of  different  ages  passing  the  test  is  not  in  itself  an 
infallible  guide.  Certain  tasks  are  taught  children  more 
or  less  regularly  at  given  ages,  and  the  ability  or  inabil- 
ity to  do  them  may  not  in  any  case  be  an  indication  of 
mental  development.  If  any  very  large  number  of  chil- 
dren were  examined  with  a  test  involving  such  a  task  it 
would  follow  naturally  that  an  increasing  percentage  of 
the  children  would  pass  it  in  going  from  younger  to 
older,  because  to  the  very  young  it  would  have  been 
taught  least  frequently  and  to  the  older  more  frequently. 
Communicability.  Closely  related  to  dependence  on 
training  is  the  communicability  of  the  test.  If  a  test 
can  be  easily  remembered  by  a  child  to  whom  it  has 
been  given,  he  may  communicate  it  to  other  children  who 
may  then  come  to  the  examination  prepared  to  pass  it. 
To  make  this  possible  the  task  and  the  directions  for 
doing  it  must,  of  course,  be  simple,  easily  remembered, 
and  must  not  involve  materials  or  conditions  that  the 
children,  cannot  themselves  supply.  It  affects  only  the 
second  of  the  three  kinds  of  tests  mentioned  above.  It 
is  necessary  also,  of  course,  that  the  child  communi- 
cating it  must  have  passed  it  and  communicate  the  cor- 
rect answer,  which  the  other  children  then  accept  and 
repeat  in  their  examination  without  knowing  themselves 


32  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

whether  it  is  right  or  wrong;  otherwise  the  communica- 
tion would  not  affect  the  results.     If  the  chilcl  fails  he 
cannot  communicate  the  correct  answer,  for  he  is  but 
very  rarely  told  by  the  examiner  when  he  is  wrong.     If 
the   children   to   whom   the   task   is   communicated   can 
themselves    correct    the    wrong    answer    communicated 
they  would   also  have  passed  the  test  without  having 
heard  of  it  before.     The  ability  to  communicate  a  test 
correctly,  after  having  been  given  it  once  together  with 
twenty  to  forty  others,  itself  requires  a  degree  of  mental 
development  found  only  in  older  children.     It  is  found 
but  very  rarely  below  a  mental  age  of  ten  with  any  of 
the  tests  now  in  use.     Thus  limited,  there  are  two  cir- 
cumstances which  make  it  important  that  a  test  of  the 
kind  in  question  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  will  not  be 
easy  to  communicate.    The  first  is  the  close  association 
of  children  in  large  groups  all  of  whom  are  being  exam- 
ined by  one  examiner,  thus  allowing  plenty  of  time  for 
knowledge  of  the  tests  to  spread  and  be  discussed.    The 
reformatory  group  is  the  chief  one  of  such  groups  where 
tests  are  being  used.    The  next  are  classes  in  the  public 
schools,  and  small  private  and  special  schools.    The  sec- 
ond i's  the  dissemination  of  knowledge  about  such  tests 
through  newspapers  and  popular  magazines.    In  the  long 
run  some  of  the  tests  may  become  more  or  less  common 
knowledge  with  parents  and  older  children  because  of 
the  inability  of  these  agencies  to  refrain  from  bringing 
them  before  the  general  public.    The  latter  circumstance 
is  merely  a  possibility  in  the  future.     The  former  has 
been  met  in  the  use  of  the  older  tests  and  has  in  a  small 
measure  affected  the  general  results.     Barring  system- 
atic effort  made  by  a  parent  or  other  person  to  teach  a 
child  to  pass  these  tests,  communicability  of  tests  is  not 
a  serious  source  of  disturbance. 

Variety.     Another  requirement  of  the  individual  test 
is  variety.  The  Binet-Simon  scale  abandoned  the  attempt 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        35 

to  find  tests  that  would  measure  the  individual  mental 
functions  separately.  If  tests  could  be  found  that  would 
measure  these  functions  separately  the  requirement 
would  be  that  the  tests  measure  all  the  mental 
functions  at  each  stage  of  mental  development  in  propor- 
tion to  their  importance  for  general  mental  development. 
In  place  of  such  tests  we  have  others  devised  without  any 
reference  to  what  mental  functions  they  test.  We  do 
not  know  just  what  the  tests  are  tests  of,  or  at  least  we 
know  it  very  incompletely  in  these  terms.  This  incom- 
plete knowledge,  in  part,  is  the  basis  for  securing  vari- 
ety, but  the  variety  of  the  tasks  viewed  from  an  objective 
standpoint  is  the  chief  guide.  If  the  tasks  themselves  are 
varied  in  this  way  there  is  little  chance  that  many  of  them 
will  involve  essentially  the  same  mental  functions,  and 
thus  not  really  be  different  tests.  To  multiply  tests  that 
are  the  same  in  character  is  of  course  of  no  value.  To  make 
a  scale  of  such  tests  theoretically  complete  it  would  be 
better  to  have  only  tests  that  gave  a  series  of  gradable 
scores  with  children  of  different  ages,  and  then  score 
each  test  for  as  many  ages  as  gave  an  improved  score. 
The  score  any  child  would  then  receive  in  such  a  test 
would  represent  that  child's  development  in  the  partic- 
ular task  involved,  instead  of  showing  simply  that  his 
development  in  this  line  was  equal  to  or  not  equal  to  that 
of  the  particular  age  alone  for  which  the  tests  are  used. 
But  there  are  difficulties  which  have  prevented  following 
this  method  in  practice.  The  chief  one  is  that  we  can- 
not limit  ourselves  to  tests  that  can  be  scored  in  this  way 
and  have  enough  tests  left  for  the  lower  ages.  For  the 
upper  ages  it  has  been  possible.  However,  it  involves 
the  danger  of  limiting  the  tests  to  certain  mental  traits 
only  to  the  exclusion  of  tests  on  later  appearing  traits. 
In  the  construction  of  a  practical  scale  one  has  to  take 
into  account  the  number  of  tests  any  method  would 
result  in,  the  time  it  takes  to  give  them,  how  it  would 


34  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

affect  the  scale  as  a  whole,  and  the  method  of  scoring. 
The  result  is  a  compromise  between  several  conflicting 
.factors. 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  YEAR  SCALE 
Mental  development  of  children  is  so  rapid  that  no 
mental  test  is  really  applicable  over  a  range  of  more  than 
several  years  of  development.  If  a  test  is  such  that  the 
average  six-year-old,  for  example,  can  just  pass  it,  it  is 
not  applicable  many  years  below  or  above  six  because 
it  would  be  obviously  too  difficult  for  the  younger  and 
obviously  too  easy  for  the  older.  If  in  any  group  of  tests 
there  are  some  which  in  this  way  fit  each  age  the  possi- 
bility of  constructing  a  year  scale  with  them  is  given. 
The  only  essential  is  that  we  know  how  many  of  these 
tests  the  average  child  of  each  age  will  pass.  To  deter- 
mine the  mental  age  of  any  given  child  it  would  be  neces- 
sary then  only  to  give  him  all  the  tests  and  note  how 
many  of  them  he  passed.  This  number  of  tests  passed 
would  correspond  more  or  less  closely  to  the  number 
average  children  of  the  same  age  passed,  and  this  age 
would  be  the  mental  age  of  the  child  in  question.  But 
to  give  each  child  whose  mental  age  is  to  be  found  all 
of  a  hundred  and  more  tests  would  be  highly  impractical 
and  absurd  as  well,  considering  the  nature  of  the  tests 
that  are  required  for  a  complete  scale  covering  the  whole 
range  of  mental  development.  There  would  be  no  point 
to  giving  a  six-year-old  child  two-year-old  or  twelve- 
year-old  tests.  In  fact,  it  would  be  decidedly  detrimental 
to  the  child's  attitude  and  effort  in  the  tests  to  give  him 
any  that  were  either  much  too  easy  or  much  too  difficult 
for  him. 

Arrangement  of  the  tests  in  Age-Groups.  The  group- 
ing of  the  tests  into  different  age-groups  naturally  sug- 
gests itself,  which  means  that  certain  of  the  tests  will  be 
grouped  together  as  six-year-old  tests,  others  as  seven- 
year-old  tests,  and  so  on.  The  great  practical  advantage 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        35 

of  such  age  grouping  is  at  once  obvious.  It  does  away 
with  the  necessity  of  giving  more  than  a  small  portion 
of  all  the  tests  in  the  scale.  Something  is  always  known 
about  a  child's  mentality  before  he  is  examined,  and  this 
knowledge  is  sufficient  to  indicate  with  what  age-group 
of  tests  to  begin  his  examination.  The  procedure  in 
determining  the  mental  age  is  equally  simple.  The  child 
is  given  the  tests  of  successive  age-groups  in  both  direc- 
tions until  an  age-group  at  the  lower  end  is  found  in 
which  all  the  tests  are  passed  and  another  age-group  at 
the  upper  end  in  which  none  of  the  tests  are  passed. 
This  done,  we  can  assume  that  the  child  can  pass  all  the 
tests  in  the  still  lower  age-groups  which  were  not  given, 
.and  that  he  cannot  pass  any  of  the  tests  in  the  still  higher 
age-groups  that  were  not  given.  This  then  gives  the 
total  number  of  tests  that  he  can  pass  in  the  whole  scale. 
If  all  the  tests  were  simply  arranged  in  the  order  of  diffi- 
culty from  first  to  last,  without  referring  any  of  them  to 
any  special  age,  the  same  might  at  first  thought  seem  to  be 
accomplished.  In  this  case  one  would  come  to  know  that 
the  examination  of  a  six-year  mentality  should  begin 
with,  say,  test  number  fifteen,  that  in  examining  a  seven- 
year-old  child  one  might  begin  with  test  twenty-two,  and 
so  on.  It  would  also  be  found  that  in  going  downward  irr 
•the  scale  one  could  stop  after  the  child  passed  a  certain 
number  of  tests  successively  without  any  failure,  and  that 
in  going  up  in  the  scale  one  could  stor  after  the  child  had 
failed  in  a  certain  number  of  tests  successively  without 
passing  in  any.  But  the  determination  of  these  points  for 
all  cases  would  amount  virtually  to  an  arrangement  of 
tests  into  age-groups.  The  determination  of  the  different 
degrees  of  difficulty  of  the  different  tests  would  in  the 
first  place,  of  course,  imply  relating  them  to  the  average 
abilities  of  children  of  different  ages  tr  pass  them. 

Determination  of  Mental  Age  from  the  Tests  Passed. 
When  the  tests  are  arranged  in  age-groups  practically 


36  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

no  child  examined  with  them  will  stop  passing  the  tests 
abruptly  in  any  age-group,  so  that  he  would  have  passed 
in  all  tests  up  to  a  certain  age-group  and  have  failed  in 
all  in  age-groups  beyond  this.  In  place  of  this  he  will 
pass  all  up  to  a  certain  age-group  and  then  fail  in  an 
increasing  number  of  each  age-group  until  one  is  reached 
in  which  he  passes  none.  The  age-grouping  of  the  tests 
calls  for  some  method  of  counting  these  extra,  scatter- 
ing tests  that  are  passed  in  determining  the  exact  mental 
age.  A  simple  method  would  be  to  base  this  determina- 
tion on  the  total  number  of  tests  in  the  whole  scale  that 
are  passed  without  reference  to  the  age-groups  in  which 
the  passed  tests  are  located.  Thus,  if  the  average  six- 
year-old  child  passed  thirty  of  all  the  tests,  any  given 
child  passing  that  many  would  have  a  mental  age  of  six, 
no  matter  how  the  passed  tests  were  distributed  over 
different  age-groups.  This  method  has  never  been  fol- 
lowed. An  equally  simple  method  is  possible  when  the 
number  of  tests  is  the  same  in  all  age-groups.  If  this 
number  is  five,  for  example,  the  child  is  given  one  year 
in  mental  age  for  every  five  tests  he  passes  beyond  the 
age-group  in  which  he  passes  all  and  below  which  he 
passes  all.  This  has  been  essentially  the  rule  in  all  the 
revisions  of  the  Binet-Simon  tests,  including  the  authors' 
own  revision  in  1912.  When  the  tests  are  not  the  same- 
in  number  in  the  different  age-groups  an  additional  dif- 
ficulty arises  when  the  attempt  is  made  as  is  now  the  uni- 
versal custom,  to  count  fractions  of  a  year  in  the  mental 
age.  If  there  are  five  tests  in  each  age-group  the  passed 
tests  left  over  may  be  counted  as  fifths  in  the  mental  age, 
but  if  the  number  is  unequal  no  satisfactory  procedure  is 
possible.  It  has  been  suggested  that  in  that  case  each 
such  test  should  count  in  proportion  to  the  number  o{ 


PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        37 

tests  in  its  age-group.  *  The  extra  tests  passed  in  an 
-age-group  of  four  tests  should  count  as  fourths;  in  an 
age-group  of  seven  tests  they  should  -count  as  sevenths, 
-and  so  on.  This  procedure  has  two  serious  objections. 
Counting  up  several  fractions  of  different  denominations 
would  be  an  awkward  process  from  the  practical  stand- 
point. From  the  theoretical  standpoint,  there  is  no  rea- 
son why  a  test  should  count  for  more  simply  because 
there  happened  to  be  less  of  them  in  its  age-group.  The 
same  difficulty  would,  of  course,  still  exist  if  the  deter- 
mination of  the  mental  age  were  based  directly  on  the 
total  number  of  tests  passed  in  the  scale  without  refer- 
•ence  to  their  age-groups,  unless  the  increase  in  the  aver- 
age total  number  passed  from  one  age  to  the  next  were 
the  same  throughout  the  scale.  If  the  latter  were  the 
case  the  scale  would  fall  into  age-groups  with  an  equal 
number  of  tests. 

In  counting  these  extra,  scattered,  tests  passed  in  the 
way  suggested  here  the  objection  has  been  made  that  it 
should  make  a  difference  in  the  score  a  child  received  as 
to  whether  he  stopped  abruptly  or  failed  gradually  in 
going  up  the  scale.2  Let  us  assume  two  cases  examined 
with  a  scale  that  has  five  tests  in  each  age-group.  Sup- 
pose that  A  passed  all  tests  in  age-groups  VII  and  be- 
low this  and  passed  none  in  VIII  and  beyond,  giving  him 
a  mental  age  of  just  seven.  Suppose  B  passed  all  in  VI 
and  below,  three  in  VII,  two  in  VIII,  and  none  beyond 
this,  giving  him  also  a  mental  age  of  just  seven.  It  is 
argued  that  B  should  have  a  slightly  higher  score  than 
A  because  a  passed  test  should  count  for  more  the  more 
difficult  it  is,  and  B  passes  two  tests  in  VIII  where  A 

1.  Terman,  L.  M.,  and  Childs,  H.  G.     A   Tentative  Revision  and  Extension 
of  the  Binet-Simon  Measuring  Scale  of  Intelligence.     J.  Educat.  Psychol,   1912. 

Pmtner,  R.  arid  Patorson,  D.  G.  A  Scale  of  Performance  Tests.  T).  Apple- 
ton  and  Co.,  New  York,  1917,  p.  144. 

Terman  in  his  later  revision  gave  up  this  method,  and  uses  six  tests  in  each 
age-group.  Where  he  has  more  than  six  tests  the  extra  ones  are  used  as  alter- 
nates only. 

2.  This  was  first  suggested  by  Stern.     See  p.  106  of  reference  cited  above. 


38  A  HANDBOOK  btv  MENTAL  TESTS 

passes  none.  This  argument,  however,  takes  account  of 
only  one  part  of  the  fact  of  scattered  passes,  and  ignores 
the  other.  If  scattering  means  passing  relatively  high 
and  difficult  tests  it  means  equally  failing  in  relatively 
easy  tests  that  are  low  in  the  scale.  If,  in  the  illustrat- 
tion  given,  B  should  be  allowed  special  credit  for  having 
passed  the  two  tests  in  VIII,  he  should  in  equal  degree 
lose  credit  for  failing  in  two  of  the  tests  in  VII  which 
A  passes. 

The  main  conclusion  that  these  considerations  lead  to 
is  that  in  the  construction  of  a  year  scale  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  tests  into  successive  age-groups  with  the 
same  number  of  tests  in  each  has  several  advantages  over 
no  arrangement  at  all  and  also  over  the  arrangement  of 
the  tests  in  the  order  of  difficulty  from  first  to  last,  with- 
out any  further  definite  reference  of  any  test  to  any 
special  age.  The  age-grouping  is,  theoretically,  not  a 
necessity,  but  in  its  use  it  is  a  very  great  convenience, 
and  all  but  a  practical  necessity. 

Correct  Placement  of  Tests  in  the  Scale.  The  next 
question  is  how  the  tests  shall  be  grouped  so  that  the 
scale  will  give  correct  mental  ages.  This  question  divides, 
itself  into  three  distinct  inquiries.  The  first  is  that  of 
average  accuracy.  This  is  determined  by  finding  how 
closely  the  average  mental  age  of  a  large  number  of  six- 
year-olds,  for  example,  approximates  six  years,  and  the 
same  for  every  other  age  from  birth  to  mental  maturity. 
The  second  is  that  of  frequency  of  error  in  the  individual 
mental  age  as  given  by  the  scale.  The  third  is  range 
of  error  in  the  individual  mental  age  as  given  by  the 
scale.1 

It  is  a  relatively  easy  matter  to  arrange  the  tests  in  a 
year  scale  so  that  the  average  mental  age  of  any  group 
of  children  examined  will  very  closely  approximate  abso- 

1.     These    three    questions    are    discussed    at    length    in    my    article    on    the 
results  of  examining  one  thousand  public  school  children,   see  reference  below.. 


PRINCIPLES  or  THE  YEAR  SCAI,E        39 

lute  accuracy.  The  original  scale  of  the  authors  meas- 
ured considerably  too  high  for  the  lower  ages  and  too 
low  for  the  higher  ages,  being  approximately  correct  only 
in  its  middle  portion.-  But  successive  revisions  of  it 
by  different  investigators  have  each  helped  to  correct 
this  general  tendency,  until  now  it  may  be  said  that  this 
fault  has  been  removed  in  an  entirely  satisfactory  man- 
ner, for  most  parts  of  the  scale.  It  has  required  shifting 
a  number  of  tests  into  different  age-groups,  dropping 
some  out  entirely,  and  adding  some  new  ones  in  place 
of  the  old.  Where  it  is  desired  to  know  only  the  average 
mentality  of  a  large  group  of  individuals  the  present  scale 
leaves  but  little  to  be  desired  as  regards  accuracy.  A 
number  of  different  groups  of  children  and  adults  have 
been  compared  by  the  use  of  the  old  scale  that  has  result- 
ed in  most  valuable  information  for  the  securing  of  which 
these  tests  have  furnished  the  only  possible  method. 
Among  these  have  been  juvenile  delinquents  in  general, 
reformatory  inmates,  adult  criminals  of  prisons,  pros- 
titutes, tramps,  paupers,  negroes,  pedagogically  retarded 
children  of  the  public  schools,  special  class  children  of 
the  public  schools,  children  of  schools  for  cripples,  epil- 
eptics, and  inmates  of  institutions  for  the  feeble-minded. 
The  scale  is  equally  applicable  to  any  other  group. 

In  the  great  majority  of  instances  the  interest  is  not 
in  the  average  mentality  of  a  group,  but  rather  in  the 
mentality  of  the  individual.  The  last  two  questions  are 
therefore  of  more  importance  than  the  first.  It  is  more 

2.  Various  studies  have  contributed  to  bringing  out  this  general  fact.  See 
especially  the  following: 

Terman,  L.  M.,  and  Childs,  H.  G.  A  Tentative  Revision  and  Extension  of 
the  Binet-Simon  Measuring  Scale  of  Intelligence.  J.  Educat.  Psychol.,  1912. 

Terman,  L.  M.,  and  others.  The  Stanford  Revision  and  Extension  of  the 
Binet-Simon  Scale  for  Measuring  Intelligence,  Educational  Psychology  Mono- 
graphs, No.  18.  Warwick  and  York,  Baltimore,  1917. 

Goddard,  H.  H.  Two  Thousand  Normal  Children  Measured  &v  the  timet 
Measuring  Scale  of  Intelligence.  Fed.  Sem.,  1911. 

Kuhlmann,  F.  The  Results  of  One  Thousand  Public  School  Children 
Examined  ivith  a  Revision  of  the  Binet-Simon  Tests  of  Intelligence.  T.  Psycho- 
Asthenics,  1914. 


40  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

important  that  a  scale  be  so  constructed  that  errors  in  the 
individual  mental  ages  do  not  occur  very  frequently, 
than  it  is  to  have  a  scale  that  on  the  average  gives  exactly 
correct  results.  And  again,  it  is  more  important  to  have 
the  possible  range  of  errors  small  than  simply  to  have 
them  occur  relatively  infrequently.  The  chief  desider- 
atum is  the  certainty  that  the  largest  possible  error  be 
known  to  be  small.  In  examining  any  given  child  there 
is  usually  no  means  of  knowing  whether  the  scale  is  in 
this  particular  case  making  the  maximum  error  or  no 
error  at  all.  Knowledge  of  the  exact  degree  of  proba- 
bility of  a  certain  amount  of  error,  such  as  a  mathemat- 
ical treatment  of  statistical  results  with  the  tests  gives 
us,  is  of  value,  but  still  unsatisfactory  in  the  classification 
of  the  individual  case. 

In  connection  with  the  original  scale  and  earlier  revi- 
sions the  attempt  has  been  made  to  show  what  the  fre- 
quency and  range  of  error  with  the  scale  are.1  This 
has  been  done  with  the  aid  of  certain  assumptions  con- 
cerning the  normal  distribution  of  different  grades  of 
intelligence  of  unselected  children.  These  assumptions 
are  that  the  true  distribution  curve  is  symmetrical,  and 
that  the  majority  of  children  have  an  average  intelli- 
gence. The  procedure  in  determining  the  degree  of 
accuracy  of  the  scale  was  then  to  examine  a  large  num- 
ber of  children  and  plot  a  distribution  curve  based  on 
the  number  of  children  that  passed  the  tests  at  age.  rmd 
the  number  that  were  retarded  or  advanced  by  one,  two, 
three  years,  and  so  on.  In  this  way  it  was  found  that, 
roughly,  the  distribution  curve  as  given  by  the  tests  was 
symmetrical,  about  the  same  number  were  retarded  as 
advanced,  and  approximately  a  majority  passed  the  tests 
at  age,  counting  a  child  passing  at  age  when  lie  was 

1.  vSee  .Binet  and  Simon's  articlp  on  their  1908  scale,  translated  by  tli/abeth 
Kite  in  Binet  and  Simon,  The  Development  of  Intelligence  in  Children.  Publi- 
cations of  the  TrainiiiR  School  at  Vineland,  New  Jersey,  No.  11,  1916. 

Also  Goddard,  II.  II.,  Two  Thousand  Normal  Children  Measured,  etc.,  in 
Peel.  Sein.,  1911. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        41 

retarded  or  advanced  by  less  than  a  year.  The  conclusion 
was  that  this  proves  the  accuracy  of  the  scale.  But  there 
are  several  things  about  these  assumptions  and  the 
method  of  procedure  that  are  unsatisfactory,  and  these 
results  really  prove  nothing  about  the  range  and  fre- 
quency of  errors  to  which  the  scale  is  subject,  that  was 
not  already  granted  on  the  basis  of  other  observations. 
Three  of  these  may  be  noted.  The  first  is  that  the  nature 
of  the  true  distribution  curve  for  different  grades  of  intel- 
ligence is  not  known  in  more  than  its  general  outline. 
The  assumption  that  it  is  symmetrical  is  probably  not 
correct.  There  are  probably  more  children  retarded  in 
mental  development  than  there  are  cases  that  are  above 
the  average  in  mental  development.  It  is  certain  that  the 
range  of  retardation  is  greater  than  the  range  of  advance- 
ment, and  it  is  more  than  likely  that  a  greater  frequency 
of  the  retarded  follows  from  this.  The  second  is  that  the 
assumption  as  to  the  majority  of  children  being  of  aver- 
age intelligence  is  quite  too  indefinite  and  inapplicable 
in  the  method  of  proof  used.  This  majority  might  con- 
stitute fifty-one  percent  of  all  children  or  it  might  be 
ninety-eight  percent.  If  a  scale  of  tests  made  fifty-one 
percent  pass  at  age,  while  seventy-five  percent  or  more 
were  really  of  average  intelligence,  it  would  be  of  no 
value  at  all  as  a  measuring  instrument.  For  such  results 
to  show  anything  about  the  accuracy  of  the  tests  the  ex- 
act proportion  of  the  children  that  are  of  average  intelli- 
gence must  be  known  more  definitely.  The  third  fault 
lies  in  the  fact  that  nothing  is  said  or  known  about  what 
range  this  average  intelligence  is  to  include,  and  that  the 
corresponding  procedure  of  classifying  a  child  as  passing 
at  age  in  the  tests  when  his  mental  age  is  within  one 
whole  year  of  his  chronological  age  is  entirely  arbitrary. 
The  exact  average  of  any  group  may  be  a  mathematical 
point  to  which  none  belong,  or,  if  the  whole  group  is 
divided  into  three  grades  only,  it  may  include  a  third  of 


42  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

the  whole  range  of  variation  from  lowest  to  highest. 
Again,  any  proportion  of  all  children  can  be  made  to  pass 
at  age  with  these  tests,  depending  on  how  the  term  "at 
age"  is  defined  and  used.  From  the  fact  that  the  rate  of 
mental  development  decreases  with  age  it  follows  also 
that  it  cannot  be  defined  in  the  same  way  for  all  ages.  If 
at  age  is  taken  to  mean  less  than  one  year  of  variation  in 
mental  age  from  the  chronological  age  then  the  propor- 
tion of  children  that  pass  at  age  must  necessarily  de- 
crease very  much  with  the  age  of  the  children  considered. 
For  a  year  of  retardation  or  advancement  means  the  more 
variation  the  younger  the  child.  Even  if  this  rate  of  nor- 
mal development  were  constant  from  year  to  year  a  re- 
tarded or  accelerated  rate  for  a  given  child  would  mean 
an 'increasing  amount  of  difference  between  age  and  men- 
tal age  with  increase  in  age,  which  would  also  result  in  a 
decreasing  proportion  of  all  children  passing  at  age  with 
increasing  age  of  the  children. 

In  the  present  situation  it  should  be  acknowledged 
frankly  that  we  do  not  have,  as  yet,  an  exact  knowledge 
of  how  frequently  the  mental  age  as  determined  by  these 
tests  is  wrong  or  what  the  greatest  error  that  they  ever 
make  is.  For  any  ready  determination  of  these  two  ques- 
tions it  is  required  that  we  know  beforehand  what  the  ex- 
act mental  ages  are  of  a  large  number  of  children  of  dif- 
ferent ages  on  wrhom  the  tests  might  then  be  tried  to  see 
if  the  results  agreed  with  the  facts.  But  it  is  just  the  lack 
of  any  method  by  which  this  knowledge  of  exact  mental 
age  can  be  obtained  that  the  tests  themselves  aim  to  sup- 
ply.1 'Possibly  a  mathematical  method  of  treating  the 

1.  The  attitude  of  many  is  that  we  can  know  the  exact  grade  of  intelligence 
of  a  child  by  extended  observation  and  by  combining  all  the  ordinary  sources 
of  information.  Thus  the  most  common  procedure  with  many  is  to  judge  the 
accuracy  of  the  tests  by'  how  well  their  results  agree  with  pre-established  opin- 
ions. If  the  tests  happen  to  agree  with  these  opinions  they  are  judged  accurate; 
if  not,  the  tests  are  judged  to  be  at  fault.  The  absolute  untrustworthiness  of 
even  the  most  carefully  formed  opinions  of  this  sort  can  be  easily  demonstrated 
by  having  several  observers  each  give  his  opinion  on  the  same  children.  There 
will  be  no  agreement  where  at  all  small  differences  in  grades  of  intelligence  are 
in  question. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        43 

test  results  can  be  found  that  will  give  us  the  desired  in- 
formation, but,  so  far,  none  has  been  worked  out.  For 
the  present  the  construction  of  a  year  scale  of  tests  must 
observe  three  facts,  all  of  which  will  tend  to  increase  the 
reliability  of  the  mental  age  of  any  paiticular  child,  as 
found  by  the  tests,  but  it  will  not  give  us  any  knowledge 
of  the  exact  degree  of  reliability  at  any  point.  Two  of 
these  have  already  been  considered.  They  are,  first, 
agreement  of  average  mental  age  of  a  group  of  children 
with  their  average  chronological  age ;  second,  the  largest 
possible  discriminative  capacity  of  each  individual  test  in 
the  scale ;  third,  increase  in  the  total  number  of  individual 
tests  in  the  scale.  Practical  considerations  largely  deter- 
mine the  total  numlber  of  tests  that  can  be  used.  The  time 
it  takes  to  give  them  sets  the  limit  in  number.  A  point 
is  also  reached  soon  where  the  mere  increase  in  number 
is  not  further  justified  by  the  increase  in  reliability  that 
results.  Fortunately  the  improvement  in  reliability  by 
increase  in  number  of  tests  can  be  computed  exactly  by 
proper  mathematical  treatment  of  the  results  and  their 
comparison  when  two,  three,  four,  or  more  tests  in  each 
age-group  are  used  in  obtaining  the  mental  age. 2 

The  Percentage  of  Children  that  Pass  a  Test  when 
Correctly  Placed.  The  arrangement  of  the  tests  into 
different  age  groups  so  that  the  average  mental  ages  of 
children  of  any  given  chronological  age  will  closely  cor- 
respond to  the  latter  requires  some  criterion  that  will 
show  in  what  age-group  a  given  test  belongs.  This  cri- 
terion is  the  different  degrees  of  difficulty  children  of 
different  ages  have  in  passing  it.  This  degree  of  difficulty 
is  in  turn  measured  by  the  percentage  of  children  of  an 
age  in  question  that  pass  it.  The  question  thus  arises  as 
to  what  percentage  of,  say  six-year-old  children,  should 
pass  a  test  in  order  for  that  test  to  be  correctly  placed  in 
age-group  VI.  The  answers  to  this  question  have  been 

2.     Sec  Doll,  E.  A.    A  Brief  Binet-Sinton  Scale.     Psychological  Clinic,  1918. 


44  A  HANDBOOK  OF  -MENTAL  TESTS 

various.  Binet  and  Simon  did  not  discuss  it  directly,  but 
from  different  incidental  statements  indicate  that  they 
have  varied  it  from  sixty  to  ninety  percent.  Others  have 
proposed  seventy-five  percent,  sixty-six  percent,  and 
fifty  percent. x  A  careful  study  of  all  the  factors  involved 
shows  that  this  percentage  is  dependent  on  a  number  of 
different  conditions,  which  results  in  its  not  being  the 
same  for  all  age-groups.  In  the  present  revised  and  ex- 
tended scale  of  eight  tests  per  age-group  covering  all 
ages  from  three  months  to  mental  maturity  this  percent- 
age ranges  from  nearly  a  hundred  percent  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  scale  to  about  fifty  percent  at  the  upper  end. 
This  is  the  fact  found  empirically.  In  the  construction 
of  this  scale  the  tests  were  provisionally  placed  in  certain 
age-groups,  and  then  shifted  about  so  that  the  scale  would 
give  correct  mental  ages  at  each  point.  The  explanation 
for  this  fact  that  the  percentage  that  should  pass  a  test 
decreases  in  going  from  one  age-group  to  the  next  higher 
is  to  be  found  in  the  increasing  number  of  scattered 
passes  for  any  child  with  increasing  mental  age.  The 
results  of  the  tests  show  that  the  total  number  of  tests 
that  a  child  passes  beyond  the  highest  age-group  in  which 
he  passes  all  increases  regularly  and  very  materially  with 
increasing  mental  age.  For  the  very  lowest  mental  ages 
the  scattered  passes  very  frequently  are  limited  to  one 
age-group.  For  the  highest  mental  ages  the  scattered 
passes  very  frequently  extend  over  five  or  six  age-groups. 
Scattered  passes  £re  in  turn  the  result  chiefly  of  two  fac- 
tors, the  decreasing  rate  of  mental  development  of  chil- 
dren as  they  grow  older,  and  the  discriminative  capacity 

1.  Goddard,  lluey,  Bobertag,  Pintner  and  Patterson,  and  others  proposed 
seventy-five  percent.  My  1912  revision  followed  the  earlier  suggestions.  Terman 
and  Childs  in  their  tentative  revision  suggest  sixty-six  percent  as  more  nearly 
correct.  In  Terman's  later  revision  of  the  tests  no  definite  percentage  is  pro- 
posed. In  the  analysis  of  my  results  on  normal  children  with  my  1912  revision, 
I  conclude  that  on  the  whole  sixty  percent  is  about  correct,  but  point  out  that 
it  must  vary  with  different  age-groups,  decreasing  gradually  with  higher  age- 
groups.  Later,  Otis,  from  purely  mathematical  deductions,  conclude<i  that  fifty 
percent  is  correct  for  all  age-groups.  See  his  article  on  Some  Logical  Aspects 
of  the  Binct-Sinwn  Scale,  Psych.  Rev.,  March  and  June,  1916. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        45 


of  the  individual  test.  The  following  illustration  will 
serve  to  makj  clear  the  main  point  in  question  here. 
Assume  a  scale  of  tests  with  five  tests  for  each  age-group, 
beginning  with  age-group  I.  Assume  a  hundred  average 
six-year-old  children  examined  with  the  tests  of  this  scale. 
For  the  tests  to  be  correctly  placed  in  their  respective 
age-groups  requires  then  that  the  average  mental  age  of 
these  one  huadred  children  shall  be  just  six  years  as  given 
by  the  scale.  Assume  two  degrees  of  scattering  in  the 
number  of  extra  tests  passed  beyond  the  age-group  in 
which  all  are  massed,  as  follows: 


Age-groups 

1 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

Total  number  passes  

^     . 

500 

500 

500 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

0 

Total  number  passes  

500 

500 

500 

1 

500 

500 

400 

100 

0 

0 

The  total  number  of  passes  here  for  the  one  hundred 
childieu  is  100x5  for  each  age-group  where  all  tests  are 
passed.  In  the  first  case  there  is  considerable  scattering 
of  passed  tests  for  these  one  hundred  children.  All  pass 
all  tests  up  to  and  including  five  tests  of  age-group  IV. 
In  V,  with  a  total  of  400  passes,  only  80  percent  of  the 
children  on  the  average  pass  each  of  the  five  tests.  For 
VI  it  is  60  percent,  for  VII  40  percent,  for  VIII  20  per- 
cent, and  for  IX  none.  On  the  whole  they  get  3000 
passes,  which  gives  them  the  required  average  mental 
age  of  just  six  years.  In  the  second  case  there  are  but 
few  scattered  passes.  All  of  the  one  hundred  children 
pass  all  of  the  five  tests  in  each  age-group  up  to  and  in- 
cluding age-group  V.  In  age-group  VI  there  are  400 
passes,  in  VII,  100  passes,  and  none  beyond  this.  In 
this  case  the  percentage  of  the  children  that  pass  the 
tests  of  each  age-group  is  100  for  each  age-group  up  to 
V,  inclusive,  80  percent  in  VI,  20  percent  in  VII,  and 
none  beyond.  The  total  number  of  passes  is  again  3000, 
giving  the  average  mental  age  of  six  years.  Thus,  in 


46  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

the  first  case  a  test  would  be  correctly  placed  in  age- 
group  VI  if  60  percent  of  average  six-year  old  children 
passed  it.  In  the  second  case,  with  less  scattering  of 
passed  tests,  a  test  would  be  correctly  placed  in  age- 
group  VI  if  80  percent  of  average  six-year-olds  passed 
it.  x  In  other  \vords,  when  the  scattering  is  greater  this 
percentage  must  be  smaller.  It  is  difficult  to  determine 
mathematically  what  the  exact  percentage  should  be  for 
each  age-group,  even  when  only  the  two  factors  noted 
are  taken  into  account.  It  would  be  possible,  with  suf- 
ficient results  at  hand,  to  work  out  the  decrease  in  rate 
of  mental  development  from  year  to  year,  as  given  by  the 
tests  themselves.  But  it  is  very  difficult  to  secure  a 
number  of  tests  that  have  even  approximately  the  same 
discriminative  capacity.  The  more  practical  procedure 
is  to  regard  this  question  as  of  secondary  importance, 
and  to  proceed  empirically  in  the  construction  of  the 
scale  by  shifting  tests  about  until  the  scale  gives  correct 
mental  ages.  When  this  is  done  in  an  adequate  manner 
the  other  problem  as  to  the  percentage  that  should  pass 
a  test  is  thereby  solved  automatically.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  of  the  greatest  practical  advantage  to  know  at 
least  approximately,  what  this  percentage  is,  when  the 
problem  is  simply  that  of  revising  or  adding  to  a  scale 
that  is  already  constructed.  New  tests  can  thus  be 
added  to  any  age-group,  or  old  ones  replaced  by  new 
ones,  simply  by  finding  tests  which  children  of  the  prop- 
er age  pass  with  the  required  frequency. 

Equality  of  Difficulty  of  Tests  in  an  Age-Group.  The 
discussion  of  this  question  may  seem  to  have  implied 
that  all  the  tests  of  any  given  age-group  must  be  of  the 
same  degree  of  difficulty.  If  sixty  percent  of  ten-year- 

1.  A  proper  understanding  of  the  facts  in  question  here  brings  to  light  bow 
irrelevant  an  earlier  criticism  of  the  Binet-Simon  Scale,  still  often  heard  from 
laymen  observers,  was,  viz.,  that  certain  tests  in  a  given  age-group  must  be 
poor  because  many  older  children  are  known  to  fail  in  them,  or  that  many 
younger  children  are  known  to  pass  them.  Thus  it  is  still  common  criticism 
that  many  entirely  normal  adults  even  will  often  fail  in  an  upper  age  test.  The 
intended  ridicule  of  the  tests  applies  very  well  to  the  critic. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        47 

old  children  should  pass  any  one  test  in  age-group  X,  it 
should  be  the  same  for  each  of  the  other  tests  in  this 
age-group.  This,  however,  is  not  a  necessity  from  a 
theoretical  standpoint,  and  is  always  far  from  being 
realized  in  any  actual  scale  of  tests  that  has  been  pro- 
duced. Theoretically,  these  percentages  may  vary  from 
the  ideally  correct  figure,  provided  they  do  so  in  equal 
amounts  above  and  below,  so  that  the  average  for  all  the 
tests  in  the  age-group  will  be  correct  for  the  group. 
When  the  actual  percentages  are  studied  for  the  tests  of 
different  revisions  and  of  the  original  scale  it  is  seen  at 
once  that  they  may  vary  in  a  most  remarkable  degree 
from  theoretical  requirements  without  seriously  disturb- 
ing the  general  accuracy  of  the  results.  This  also  ex- 
plains the  fact  that  the  original  scale  gave  relatively  very 
good  results  even  though  it  contained  many  tests  that 
were  misplaced,  and  required  shifting1  into  lower  or 
higher  age-groups.  For  a  single  test  to  be  placed  one 
age-group  too  high  in  the  scale  will  by  no  means  result 
in  the  scale  always,  measuring  one  test  too  high.  If  a 
ten-year  test  were  located  in  age-group  XI,  the  scale 
would  measure  one  test  too  high  in  only  a  certain  per- 
cent of  the  cases  examined,  because  the  great  majority 
of  those  who  pass  a  ten-year  test  will  also  pass  an  eleven- 
year  test.  The  percent  of  error  the  scale  would  make 
because  of  such  a  misplacement  of  a  test  would  only 
equal  the  difference  between  the  percentage  of  a  given 
age  that  pass  a  ten  and  an  eleven-year  test.  This  is  in 
the  neighborhood  of  twenty  percent.  If  another  test  of  the 
same  age-group  were  misplaced  by  the  same  amount  but 
in  the  opposite  direction  the  two  resulting  errors  would 
cancel  each  other  even  in  the  examination  of  the  individ- 
ual case.  The  misplacement  of  a  few  tests  does  not 
affect  the  accuracy  of  the  scale  as  seriously  as  it  might 
seem,  and  if  the  misplacements  are  distributed  in  the 
right  way  the  accuracy  may  not  be  affected  at  all. 


4S  A  HANDBOOK  OE  Mi-:. \-TAI,  T 

THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  NORMS 
l»y  definition,  the  mental  ages  represent  the  average 
mental  development  of  children  of  corresponding  chron- 
ological ages.  Having  outlined  the  general  traits 
required  of  each  individual  test,  and  the  general  princi- 
ples to  be  observed  in  combining  the  tests  into  an  age 
scale,  the  very  important  problem  of  selecting  children 
that  will  make  scores  with  the  tests  that  are  truly  rep- 
resentative, the  average  for  all  children,  remains.  This 
concerns  the  establishment  of  norms  for  the  tests.  A 
great  many  so-called  mental  tests  have  been  and  are 
still  used  for  diagnostic  purposes  for  which  no  estab- 
lished norms  exist.  The  exact  performances,  the  scores 
that  average  children  of  different  ages  make  with  them 
are  not  known.  'Users  of  such  tests  draw  on  their  own 
imagination  in  determining  the  grades  of  intelligence, 
or  levels  of  mental  development  that  the  different  scores 
individual  children  are  found  to  make  with  them  repre- 
sent. Such  "tests"  are  not  tests.  They  can  serve  no 
other  purpose  than  to  deceive,  including  often  the  author 
and  examiner  as  well  as  the  uninitiated  outside  observer. 
On  the  other  hand,  while  it  seems  on  first  thought  a 
simple  matter  to  try  out  any  tests  on  average  children 
and  determine  what  the  normal  scores  for  different  ages 
are,  this  task  has  never  been  accomplished  in  a  manner 
that  is  free  from  all  objections.  The  ideal  from  a  theoret- 
ical standpoint  has  not  yet  been  even  defined.  It  was 
at  first  claimed  that  the  children  to  be  used  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  norms  must  be  unselected  children,  includ- 
ing all  children  without  any  eliminations,  otherwise  a 
true  average  performance  could  not  be  established.  But 
this  ideal  was  soon  found  to  be  impractical.  Of  course 
not  all  children  can  be  examined,  but  even  a  random 
sampling  of  all  children  is  likewise  impossible.  Children 
are  not  available  for  the  purpose  of  examination  except 
in  groups,  such  as  in  the  schools,  and  institutions,  and 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        49 

in  some  other  instances  when  some  special  factor  brings 
them  together  temporarily  for  some  specific  purpose. 
Now  the  very  fact  that  they  are  grouped  for  some  pur- 
pose means  that  they  are  not  entirely  unselectecl.  Norms 
for  tests  must,  therefore,  always  be  based  on  results 
obtained  with  selected  children.  The  possible  errors  that 
might  result  from  this  can  be  corrected  if  the  selective 
influences  in  each  group  are  known  so  that  the  children 
tested  for  norms  may  be  still  further  selected  artificially 
in  such  a  way  as  to  counteract  the  influence  of  the  selec- 
tion inherent  in  the  original  group.  But  before  we  accept 
the  truly  unselected  group  as  the  ideal,  let  us  consider 
whether  it  really  is  ideal.  "All  children"  might  include 
children  of  all  races.  If  taken  thus  inclusively  the  unse- 
lected group  would  be  highly  undesirable.  The  Binet- 
Simon  tests  have  already  shown  that  there  are  marked 
race  differences  in  rates  of  mental  development  and  final 
levels  reached.  l  A  scale  that  gives  correct  mental  ages 
for  white  children  does  not  do  so  for  negro  or  Indian 
children  in  America.  White  children  of  different  nation- 
alities seem  to  be  fairly  alike.  The  original  Binet-Simon 
Scale  adapted  to  French  children  seems  on  the  whole 
to  give  about  the  same  results  when  used  on  English, 
German,  Russian,  and  Italian  children.  But  thp  white 
children  from  different  classes  as  determined  by  differ- 
ent social  conditions  differ  more  from  each  other 2  than 


1.  Report    on    the    Mental    Examination    of    Certain    Pupils    in    the    Thomas 
Indian  School,  Iroquois,  N.  Y.     Eugenics  and  Social  Welfare  Bulletin  No.   11. 
The  Bureau  of  Analysis  and  Investigation.     State  Board  of  Charities,   Albany, 
N.  Y.,  1917. 

Morse,  J.  A  Comparison  of  White  and  Colored  Children  Measured  by  the 
Binet-Simon  Scale  of  Intelligence.  Pop.  Sci.  Mon.,  1914. 

Phillips,  B.  A.  The  Binet  Tests  Applied  to  Colored  Children.  Psychol.  Clinic, 
1914. 

Rowe,  E.  C.  Five  Hundred  and  Forty-Seven  White  and  Two  Hundred  and 
Sixty-Eight  Indian  Children  Tested  by  the  Binet-Simon  Tests.  Fed.  Sem.,  1914. 

Strong,  A.  C.  Three  Hundred  and  Fifty  White  and  Colored  Children  Meas- 
ured by  the  Binet-Simon  Measuring  Scale  of  Intelligence;  a  Comparative  Study. 
Ped.  Sem.,  1913. 

2.  See  article  by  Strong. 

Also  Yerkes,  R.  M.,  Bridges,  J.  W.,  and  Hardwick,  R.  S.  A  Point  Scale  for 
Measuring  Mental  Ability.  Warwick  and  York,  1915. 

Bridges.  J.  W.,  and  Coler,  L.  The  Relation  of  Intelligence  to  Social  Status. 
Psychol.  Rev.,  1917. 


50  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

do  the  races  so  far  examined  with  these  tests.  These 
general  facts  remind  us  once  more  that  the  year  scale 
does  not  measure  in  absolute  terms,  but  in  terms,  mental 
ages,  that  are  relative  to  the  average  development  of 
the  kind  of  children  on  whose  scores  with  the  tests  the 
norms  are  based.  The  inch  scale  applies  equally  to  the 
physical  measurement  of  children  of  all  races.  The  year 
scale  in  mental  measurement  does  not  do  so  directly 
Avithout  some  adjustments.  It  has  been  proposed  that 
different  scales  be  worked  out  for  different  races,  and 
even  for  different  social  classes.  1  In  my  judgment  this 
would  lead  to  confusion  and  less  practical  applicability 
than  a  single  scale  used  for  all  children.  The  most  prac- 
tical standard  would  seem  to  be  the  national,  not  that 
of  the  race  or  class.  Each  nation  sets  the  requirements 
of  its  children,  and  all  must  meet  them  as  best  they  can 
irrespective  of  race,  or  class.  After  all,  the  objections 
are  more  theoretical  than  practical.  A  scale  that  fits  the 
average  American  white  child  is  in  every  practical  sense 
satisfactory.  Where  race  and  class  differences  exist  it 
is  not  difficult  to  make  the  necessary  adjustments  in  the 
results.  Again,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  very  pur- 
pose of  mental  measurement  is  to  show  just  such  differ- 
ences. If  the  average  child  of  another  race  had  an  intel- 
ligence of  only  .95  as  measured  in  terms  of  the  white 
child's  scale  it  is  difficult  to  see  any  practical  value  of 
having  another  scale  which  would  give  this  other  child 
an  intelligence  of  100  instead  of  .95i,  unless  the  value  for 
the  two  scales  could  be  equated.  If  they  were,  thus 
equated  there  would  be  no  particular  advantage  in  hav- 
ing two  scales  in  place  of  one. 

Granting  that  unselected  children  are  not  available 
for  examination  purposes  to  establish  norms  for  tests, 
we  may  consider  the  nature  of  the  groups  that  are  avail- 
able and  what  influences  on  the  average  mental  develop- 

1.     Proposed  especially  by  Yerkes. 


,    PRINCIPLES    OF    THE    YEAR    ScAi,£  51 

meat  the  selective  factors  may  have  had.  These  groups 
naturally  divide  themselves  into  three  classes  according 
to  the  age  of  the  children.  The  first  is  the  age  of  infancy 
including  the  first  two  years,  the  second  is  the  kinder- 
garten age  from  three  to  five,  and  the  third  the  school  age 
proper  from  six  to  mental  maturity.  For  the  first  period 
three  classes  of  children  have  been  available;  children 
in  maternity  hospitals,  children  brought  to  baby  con- 
tests more  or  less  common  in  the  middle  and  western 
states,  and  children  of  orphan  asylums.  Probably  neither 
of  these  three  classes  present  a  mental  development  that 
is  truly  representative  of  all  children.  Since  children 
born  in  maternity  hospitals  usually  leave  after  a  very 
short  period  they  can  in  any  case  not  contribute  much 
to  norms.  Children  brought  to  baby  contests  are  prob- 
ably on  the  whole  considerably  above  average.  There 
are  two  selective  factors  at  least  that  would  tend  to  pro- 
duce this  result.  In  the  first  place,  parents  of  the  lower 
classes  do  not  interest  themselves  in  baby  contests,  prob- 
ably usually  do  not  know  of  them  at  all.  In  the  second 
place,  -parents  of  the  middle  and  upper  classes  probably 
exercise  some  judgment  in  bringing  children  to  a  con- 
test; the  better  developed  children  are  more  likely  to  be 
brought.  Orphan  asylums  usually  have  some  children 
below  three  years.  Their  average  mentality  is  undoubt- 
edly below  that  of  children  in  general.  While  not  always 
orphans,  these  children  come  from  a  variety  of  parents 
all  classes  of  which  are  on  the  whole  undoubtedly  below 
average.  Parents  that  die  young  are  below  average  phy- 
sically, and  on  the  average  leave  descendents  that  have 
inherited  some  defects  that  react  on  their  mental  devel- 
opment in  some  measure.  Orphan  asylum  children  that 
come  from  broken  up  homes,  from  parents  who  have  sep- 
arated, or  who  cannot  or  will  not  bring  up  their  chil- 
dren can  likewise  not  be  regarded  as  representing  aver- 
age human  stock.  While  we  can  reasonably  assume  that 
selective  factors  of  this  sort  are  present  to  make  the 


52  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

average  orphan  asylum  child  slightly  below  the  average 
of  children  in  general  in  mental  development,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  rely  entirely  on  such  analysis.  Older  orphan 
asylum  children  have  been  examined  with  the  Binet- 
Simon  tests,  and  on  the  whole  have  been  found  below 
average.1  If  this  is  true  of  the  older  orphan  children 
it  is  surely  also  true  of  the  younger. 

The  age  period  from  three  to  five  years  is  the  most 
devoid  of  children  available  for  testing  to  secure  norms. 
The  orphan  asylums  furnish  a  small  number.  The  kin- 
dergartens constitute  practically  the  only  other  group 
for  this  age.  But  little  can  be  said  positively  about 
what  mentality  kindergarten  children  represent.  Accord- 
ing to  locality,  the  kindergarten  is  often  highly  selective. 
The  kindergarten  class  may  contain  predominantly  chil- 
dren from  the  poorer  homes  where  the  mothers  are  em- 
ployed or  where  for  some  other  reason  the  parents  take 
advantage  of  this  opportunity  to  have  the  children  taken 
care  of  during  the  day.  My  judgment  is,  however,  that 
more  usually  it  is  the  more  intelligent  parents  of  the 
middle  and  upper  classes  who  appreciate  the  advantages 
of  the  kindergarten  from  the  children's  standpoint  and 
thus  send  their  children  more  frequently  than  do  average 
parents. 

Mental  tests  find  their  chief  application  with  children 
of  school  age,  and  especially  with  children  of  the  lower 
grades.  It  is  for  these  ages,  therefore,  that  it  is  especial- 
ly desirable  to  secure  norms  for  the  tests  that  are  as 
nearly  representative  of  unselected  children  as  possible. 
It  was  at  first  thought  that  taking  all  school  children 
without  any  further  selection  would  fulfill  this  condition 
in  a  satisfactory  manner.  My  experience,  however,  has 
been  that  this  is  not  true  beyond  the  age  of  ten,  and  that 

1.  Examination  of  Orphan  Aslyum  Children,  Eugenics  and  Social  Welfare 
T>ulletin  No.  11.  The  Bureau  of 'Analysis  and  Investigation.  State  Board  of 
Charities,  Albany.  N.  Y.,  1917. 

Streeter,  L.  C.  Existing  Conditions  Relating  to  Defectives  and  Feeble- 
Minded  in  New  Hampshire.  Report  of  New  Hampshire  Children's  Commission, 
1916. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        53 

it  would  be  desirable  to  select  the  children  even  below* 
this  age  instead  of  taking  all  that  are  in  the  schools  with- 
out eliminations.  It  is  well  known  that  the  schools 
themselves  involve  a  selecting  process.  The  very  lowest 
grade  children  never  enter  the  public  schools.  Higher 
grade  defectives  enter  and  remain  a  different  number 
of  years  which  is  on  the  whole  probably  quite  propor- 
tional to  the  degree  of  their  deficiency.  Thus  the  schools 
are  not  only  selective  but  are  increasingly  so  the  older 
the  children  or  the  higher  the  school  grade.  Children 
with  an  intelligence  as  low  as  .30  may  enter  the  kinder- 
garten or  first  grade,  but  never  get  advanced  and  rarely 
remain  over  a  year.  Children  with  an  intelligence  of  .70 
to  .80  are  more  or  less  frequently  found  in  the  eighth 
grade,  and  remain  in  the  schools  until  the  age  of  fifteen 
and  over.  The  merely  dull  children  who  range  between 
.80  and  .90  may  pass  through  all  the  grades  and  high 
schools,  but  usually  at  considerably  retarded  rates.  The 
bright  children  with  intelligences  above  1.00  are  in  a  far 
less  degree  pedagogically  advanced  in  the  grades  than 
the  dull  are  retarded.1  Thus  beyond  the  third  school 
grade,  about,  a  condition  is  soon  reached  where  the  chil- 
dren of  any  grade  no  longer  represent  an  exact  average 
of  children  in  general.  In  the  seventh  grade  and  beyond 
the  mental  development  is  very  likely  to  be  distinctly 
inversely  proportional  to  the  ages  of  the  children,  the 
older  children  of  a  given  grade  having  the  lower  mental 
ages  instead  of  the  higher.  Thus  it  becomes  entirely 
impermissible  to  select  children  of  two  or  three  consec- 
utive ages  from  one  or  two  school  grades  only  in  attempt- 
ing to  secure  norms  for  these  ages.  If  it  is  intended  to 
take  unselected  school  children  for  any  given  age  all  the 
children  of  that  age  in  the  whole  school  system  must  be 
taken  from  all  the  school  grades  in  which  they  are  found. 
When  this  is  done  the  average  mental  development  of 

1.     Sec  Terman,  L.  M.     The  Measurement  of  Intelligence.     Houghton,  Mifflin 
&  Co.,  1916. 


54  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MICNTAI,  TESTS 

.the  children  for  each  age  will  still  be  slightly  too  high 
for  the  younger  children  and  increasingly  too  high  for  the 
older  children.     This  difference  is  due,  of  course,  to  the 
duller  children  dropping  out  of  school  \vith  increasing 
frequency  as  they  grow  older  and  attempt  to  pass  up 
through  the  successive  school  grades.     For  all  practical 
purposes  of  securing  norms  the  difference   is  probably 
negligible  for  children  up  to  the  age  of  ten.     The  aver- 
age   mental    development    of    children    from    twelve    to 
eighteen  who  still  remain  in  school  is  probably  appre- 
ciably above  the  average  of  children  in  general.     Suffi- 
cient statistics  are  not  yet  available  to  determine  whether 
this  difference  is  enough  to  disturb  seriously  the  norms 
for  tests  based  on  unselected  school  children.     The  fol- 
lowing illustration  based  on  Terman's  results  with  1000 
unselected  school  children  aged   five  to  fourteen  years 
may  give  some  idea  of  the  possible  effect  of  the  elimina- 
tion from  the  schools  of  the  duller  children.     In  Ter- 
man's results  .33  percent  have  an  intelligence  of  .56  to 
.65;  2.3  percent  have  an  intelligence  from  .66  to  .75;  8.6 
percent  from  .76  to  .85.    Assume  a  hundred  children  each 
with  an  intelligence  of  1.00,  giving  them  an  average  intel- 
ligence of  1.00.     For  three  of  these  children  substitute 
three  others  with  an  intelligence  of  .70  each.     For  ten 
more   of   these   children,   substitute   ten  others   with   an 
intelligence   of   .80   each.      These   thirteen    children   are 
about  what  it  seems  we  may  roughly  suppose  the  schools 
to  eliminate  beyond  about  the  seventh  grade.    The  aver- 
age intelligence  of  these  100  children  drops  from  1.00  to 
.97  by  the  substitution.     A  scale  based  on  norms  from 
children    in    the    schools    may    measure    several    points 
higher  at  its  upper  end  than  would  be  the  case  if  the 
norms  were  based  on  children  in  general,  entirely  unse- 
lected.   Let  us  not  conclude,  however,  that  a  scale  based 
on   norms   from   entirely  unselected   children   would   be 
more  desirable  than  one  which  has  eliminated  a  certain 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  oi?  THE  YEAR  SCALE        55 

percentage  of  the  lowest  grade  cases  in  the  establish- 
ment of  its  norms.  The  normal  distribution  curve  for 
different  grades  of  intelligence  may  not  be  symmetrical. 
As  pointed  out  above  in  another  connection,  there  are 
probably  more  children  below  average  intelligence  than 
above.  If  this  is  so  some  of  the  lowest  grade  cases 
should  not  enter  in  the  establishment  of  norms  for  a 
scale  of  tests. 

I  am  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  in  the  establishment 
of  norms  only  those  children  should  be  selected  who  are 
pedagogically  normal.  In  actual  practice  it  becomes 
necessary  to  do  so  for  the  higher  ages,  for  the  selective 
influences  become  so  complicated  and  variable  that  it 
requires  hundreds  of  cases  of  each  age  to  secure  reliable 
average  scores  if  those  influences  are  neglected.  In 
accepting  this  method,  however,  a  number  of  objections 
and  difficulties,  from  a  theoretical  standpoint,  still  re- 
main. In  selecting  pedagogically  normal  children  only, 
the  duller  cases  are  not  eliminated  in  the  same  degree 
for  the  different  ages  and  school  grades,  but  in  an  increas- 
ing degree  as  we  go  up  in  the  school  grades.  On  the 
whole  those  above  average  intelligence  are  not  elimi- 
nated as  much  as  those  below,  because  the  schools  do 
not  allo\v  the  brighter  to  advance  ahead  of  their  grade 
as  much  as  they  compel  the  duller  to  fall  behind  their 
grade.  But,  again,  the  brighter  are  eliminated  in  an 
increasing  degree  by  this  selection  as  we  go  up  in  the 
grades,  because  as  the  brighter  children  grow  older  more 
of  them  will  skip  a  grade  or  more.  Furthermore,  in 
selecting  the  pedagogically  normal  children  alone  we 
assume  that  the  work  of  the  different  school  grades  is 
at  all  points  equally  a  means  of  measuring  intelligence 
and  that  it  is  correctly  adjusted  to  the  capacities  of  chil- 
dren of  different  ages.  .Finally,  the  question  remains 
as  to  how  the  pedagogically  normal  is  to  be  defined. 
Most  children  are  between  six  and  seven  when  they  begin 


56  A  HANDBOOK  or  MENTAI, 

their  first  grade  in  September.  This  makes  the  average 
age  of  children  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  grade  near 
six  and  a  half  years.  But  testing  children  to  establish 
norms  for  tests  can  usually  not  be  all  done  in  Septem- 
ber. And  six  and  a  half  years  cannot  be  taken  as  the 
pedagogically  normal  for  first  grade  children  at  all  times 
of  the  school  year.  The  time  of  the  school  year  must 
be  taken  into  account  in  defining  the  pedagogically  nor- 
mal age  for  each  school  grade. 

If  the  schools  themselves  exercise  a  selective  influence 
in  determining  the  kind  of  children  to  be  found  in  the 
different  school  grades,  there  are  other  larger  selective 
influences  which  determine  the  kind  of  children  in  any 
community  that  are  brought  to  the  schools  in  the  first 
place.     General  locality  differences  in  the  average  grade 
of  intelligence  found  in  a  given  locality  result  from  many 
different  factors.     The  tendency  often  witnessed  in  this 
country  of  immigrants  of  a  certain  nationality  or  class 
settling    and    congregating    in    one    district    because    of 
mutual   personal   bonds   is   one   of  these.     The  locality 
itself  often  possesses  traits  which  attract  or  repel  one 
class  of  people  rather  than  another.    The  ambitious  and 
capable    move     to  localities    where    opportunities    are 
largest.     "The  deserted  New  England  farms,"  the  "Poor 
white  trash"  of  mountains  of  the  South,  the  "Backwoods- 
man" of  many  localities,  and  "Young  man,  go  West,"  are 
phrases  based  on  a  general  recognition  of  this  fact.  Aside 
from  the  locality  itself  the  predominant  occupation  of  a 
locality   which    may   be   little   or   not   at   all   related    to 
physical  traits  of  the  locality,  probably  often  exercises  a 
marked  influence  on  the  average  abilities  of  the  popu- 
lation.    Different   trades   call   for   different   qualities   of 
men  and  women. 

Such  locality  differences,  however,  are  sufficiently 
recognizable,  and  need  not  be  a  source  of  disturbance  in 
establishing  norms  for  mental  tests.  They  need  simply 
to  be  kept  in  mind  and  avoided.  Differences  likely  to 


PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  YEAR  SCALE        57 

exist  in  the  population  of  different  parts  of  large  towns 
and  cities  require  a  more  careful  consideration,  less  they 
be  overlooked.  Taken  in  the  large,  there  is  a  relation 
between  the  price  of  real  estate  and  the  abilities  of  real 
estate  owners.  The  weak,  inefficient  and  incapable  on 
the  whole  gravitate  towards  those  sections  of  the  town 
where  real  estate  is  cheap  or  where  houses  can  be  rented. 
It  does  not  require  a  "slum  district"  of  a  large  city  to 
lower  the  average  intelligence  of  the  children  inhabiting 
a  given  city  area.  Any  town  with  a  population  of  10,000 
or  even  less  is  likely  to  have  a  good  and  a  bad  section. 
The  possible  disturbance  to  norms  due  to  these  selective 
influences  is  again  not  difficult  to  avoid.  But  it  is  im- 
portant and  necessary  to  do  so.  If  in  any  large  city  the 
childre^  tested  for  norms  were  selected  from  a  few 
schools  only  it  is  more  than  likely  that  their  norms 
would  deviate  slightly  from  the  true  averages  sought. 
All  the  schools  in  any  given  school  system  should  be 
used  in  selecting  the  children.  The  number  selected 
from  each  school  should  be  the  same  percent  of  the 
school's  total  enrollment  in  each  case. 

One  more  question  needs  to  be  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  the  establishment  of  norms.  This  is  the  ques- 
tion as  to  the  number  of  children  required  to  make  the 
average  scores  obtained  reliable.  The  possible  influence 
of  a  number  of  disturbing  factors  has  always,  in  a  gen- 
eral way,  been  realized.  The  common  method  of  meet- 
ing the  difficulty  has  been  to  require  large  numbers,  the 
idea  being  that  if  only  enough  children  were  tested  the 
influences  of  opposing  factors  would  cancel  each  other 
and  leave  the  average  undisturbed.  But  there  is  a  fallacy 
in  this  method.  The  disturbing  influences  may  not  be 
opposing  influences  and  the  increase  in  numbers,  merely, 
may  not  avoid  the  difficulty.  An  analysis  of  conditions 
leading  to  a  knowledge  of  what  the  disturbing  influences 
are,  and  a  consequent  selection  of  the  children  so  as  to 
avoid  or  counteract  them  is  a  much  more  effective 


58  A  HANDBOOK  of  MHNTAL  TESTS 

method  than  multiplying  numbers  without  such  analy- 
sis. This  being  granted,  the  number  of  children  tested 
in  the  first  place  must  be  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of 
their  distribution  over  the  different  ages.  A  thousand 
cases  is  an  ample  number  for  the  construction  of  a  com- 
plete scale  of  tests  if  Acre  is  approximately  an  equal 
number  for  each  age.  If  all  the  children  of  a  school  sys- 
tem, however,  are  taken,  or  if  they  are  so  selected  that 
the  same  percentage  of  each  grade  is  taken  the  distribu- 
tion will  be  very  poor,  giving  three  to  four  times  as 
many  with  an  age  of  six  and  seven  as  with  an  age  o«~ 
fourteen  and  fifteen.  For  this  reason  the  large  number 
of  children  on  which  the  norms  for  a  whole  scale  are 
based  is  sometimes  misleading.  This  number  may  be 
very  small  and  inadequate  for  some  ages,  mosj;  likely 
the  ages  below  six  and  above  twelve.  In  the  second 
place  in  order  really  to  determine  the  discriminative 
capacity  of  a  test,  it  must  be  given  to  children  of  a  min- 
imum of  three  consecutive  ages,  the  middle  age  bein.n 
the  age  corresponding  to  that  of  the  age-group  of  tests  in 
which  the  test  in  question  is  to  be  placed.  But  since 
this  middle  age  is  not  known  beforehand  it  is  usually 
necessary  to  give  a  test  to  children  of  several  consecutive 
ages  in  order  to  find  the  three  ages  for  which  average 
scores  are  to  be  established.  Assuming  that  this  has 
been  done,  and  that  all  the  children  to  be  tested  have 
been  selected  properly,  we  may  say  that  fifty  children 
for  each  age  are  entirely  adequate  for  securing  reliable 
norms.  With  one  age-group  of  tests  for  each  year  from 
one  to  fifteen  years  it  would  require  only  750  children. 
In  putting  the  figure  as  low  as  this  it  is  necessary  to  em- 
phasize that  the  possibility  of  doing  so  depends  on  the 
degree  of  care  exercised  in  selecting  the  children,  and. 
of  course,  on  keeping  other  conditions  uniform.  An 
excellent  plan  to  follow  is  suggested  by  Pintner.1  This 

1.     Pintner,    R..    and    Patterson,    D.    G.      A    Scale    of    Performance    7>j'.v. 
D.  Appletor.  and  Company,   1917,  p.  76. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  TFIK  YEAR  SCALI;  59 

is  to  compute  the  averages  at  definite  intervals  as  one 
proceeds  with  the  testing,  and  stop  when  the  average- 
ceases  to  be  effected  materially  by  the  addition  of  more 
cases. 

The  selection  of  the  children  of  each  age  to  be  tested 
involves  the  question  as  to  how  near  the  exact  ages  they 
must  be  at  the  time  of  the  testing.  Some  have  followed 
the  plan  of  selecting  only  those  children  who  are  within 
two  months  of  their  birthdays  at  the  time  of  the  testing. 
This  has  certain  obvious  theoretical  advantages,  but  is 
often  impossible  in  practice>  because  of  the  very  large 
number  of  children  required  from  which  to  select  those 
that  will  meet  this  and  the  various  other  requirements 
just  discussed.  To  satisfy  the  requirements  of  securing  a 
reliable  average  score  for  each  age,  children  of  all  inter- 
mediate ages  may  be  taken  and  then  each  child  may  be 
classified  under  the  age  that  corresponds  with  his  near- 
est birthday,  calling  all  children  six  years  old,  for  exam- 
ple, whose  ages  are  between  five  years  six  months  and 
six  years  five  months. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  CONDUCT  OF  AN  EXAMINATION 

The  Immediate  Object.  The  immediate  object  in  an 
examination  is  to  get  the  best  response  in  each  test  that 
the  subject  is  capable  of  giving,  under  the  exact  condi- 
tions described  in  the  test.  Only  the  best  responses  pos- 
sible can  give  us  a  definite  idea  of  the  subject's  ability. 
If  it  is  less  than  this,  we  have  no  means  of  knowing  just 
how  much  less  it  is.  Removing  all  obstacles  to  such  a 
response  is  also  the  only  means  of  securing  the  necessary 
degree  of  uniformity  of  the  conditions  under  which  the 
tests  are  made  for  different  subjects.  It  is  much  easier 
to  secure  maximum  effort  from  each  subject  than  it  is 
to  secure  any  definite  degree  less  than  this  and  know 
that  it  is  the  same  for  all.  What  we  call  maximum  effort; 
however,  is  determined  by  many  factors,  both  in  the 
external  circumstances  of  the  test,  and  in  the  subject's 
mental  make-up  of  the  moment.  It  is  difficult  to  judge 
the  influence  of  these  factors,  and  often  their  presence 
even  escapes  the  examiner's  observation.  External  cir- 
cumstances can  usually  be  more  or  less  completely  con- 
trolled, but  the  subject's  attitude,  and  mental  content  can 
be  regulated  to  a  much  less  extent,  largely  because  they 
are  unknown  in  the  first  place.  The  guiding  rule  must 
therefore  be  to  remove  every  possible  hindrance  to  the 
subject's  best  performance.  Test  results  that  do  not 
represent  the  subject's  true  abilities  are  due  much  more 
to  a  failure  in  securing  his  best  efforts  than  to  any  inade- 
quacy of  the  tests  themselves. 

The  Importance  of  Following  Directions  Literally. 
The  extensive  and  detailed  directions  given  here  and 
with  each  individual  test  in  the  next  chapter  aim  to 

60 


THE  CONDUCT  of  AN  EXAMINATION  61 

secure  the  necessary  uniformity  of  conditions  under 
which  different  subjects  respond  to  the  same  tests.  The 
general  directions  concerned  with  conditions  affecting 
many  or  all  the  tests  will  be  discussed  now.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  these  directions,  both  general  and  the  special 
directions  for  each  test,  be  followed  literally  at  all  times. 
By  far  the  majority  of  failures  and  mistakes  of  the  rel- 
atively untrained  examiner  are  due  to  his  failure  to 
follow  directions,  which  in  themselves  present  no  inher- 
ent difficulty,  and  relatively  few  are  due  to  his  lack  of 
psychological  knowledge  and  scientific  training.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  well  trained  psychologist  as  exam- 
iner and  the  school  teacher  without  psychological  train- 
ing lies  not  so  much  in  the  application  of  psychological 
knowledge  as  it  does  in  the  difference  in  the  apprecia- 
tion of  the  necessity  of  following  rules.  The  psychol- 
ogist appreciates  this  necessity  partly  because  he  under- 
stands them,  and  partly  because  he  has  been  trained  for 
years  to  follow  rules.  The  untrained  cannot  do  so  either 
from  knowledge  or  from  habit,  and  inasmuch  as  the  mas- 
tery of  the  variety  of  details  in  the  directions  requires 
a  great  deal  of  time  and  patient  work,  he  invariably  fol- 
lows the  line  of  least  resistance  by  neglecting  to  adhere 
to  them  completely.  The  first  prerequisite  for  the  ex- 
aminer, whether  he  is  psychologist  or  not,  is  a  full  under- 
standing that  the  directions  laid  down  must  not  be  var- 
ied in  the  slightest  detail.  By  this  it  is  not  meant  that 
every  slight  variation  in  the  procedure  in  giving  a  test 
would  always  invalidate  the  result;  doubtless  there  are 
instances  in  which  some  change  in  the  procedure  would 
more  nearly  give  uniformity  of  conditions  for  all  sub- 
jects, or  would  at  least  do  equally  well.  But  no  one,  no 
matter  how  well  versed  in  psychology  or  experienced  in 
giving  mental  tests,  can  know  off-hand  what  the  effect 
of  any  change  will  be.  Moreover,  the  tests  are  all  stan- 
dardized for  the  conditions  laid  down.  It  is  known  what 
they  will  do  if  the  directions  as  given  are  followed  liter- 


62  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAI, 

ally,     It  is  not  known  what  they  will  do  when  changes 
are  introduced. 

One  of  the  surest  signs  of  lack  of  scientific  training 
on  the  part  of  an  examiner,  and  also  the  most  fatal  to 
mental  tests,  is  that  critical  attitude  born  of  a  few  chance 
observations,  which  leads  him  to  change  the  tests  or 
their  directions  in  some  respect  with  the  view  of  improv- 
ing them. 

Experience  with  mental  tests  has  proven  repeatedly 
that  there  is  but  one  sure  way  of  knowing  what  the  effect 
of  a  certain  condition  under  which  a  test  is  given  will  be. 
This  is  the  empirical  way  of  trying  it  out  and  observing. 
It  is  only  those  who  have  not  had  this  experience  who  do 
not  realize  the  gravity  of  not  adhering  strictly  to  for- 
mulae. 

No  attempt  should  be  made,  even  by  the  most  exper- 
ienced, to  give  the  tests  with  only  an  abbreviated  form 
of  the  directions  before  him,  such  as  a  list  of  the  tests 
with  a  few  catch  phrases  of  the  procedure  only.  The  full 
text  as  given  in  the  next  chapter  should  be  used  at  all 
times.  No  one  is  capable  of  keeping  all  the  necessary 
details  memorized,  no  matter  how  many  cases  he  has 
examined.  An  abbreviated  text,  erroneously  supposed 
to  be  more  convenient,  invariably  results  in  gradual, 
unconscious  modifications  of  the  procedure  until  quite 
impermissible  changes  are  introduced. 

Numerous  instances  have  been  revealed  in  the  use  of 
the  present  tests  in  which  very  slight  variations  in  the 
procedure  in  giving  a  test  produced  entirely  unforseen 
influences  on  the  results.  Thus,  the  seven-year-old  sub- 
ject's reaction  to  a  picture  may  be  that  of  a  three-year-old 
as  the  result  of  the  form  of  the  question  asked.  In  gen- 
eral, the  former  can  describe  a  picture,  while  the  latter 
can  only  enumerate  a  few  of  its  individual  objects.  If 
the  seven-year-old  is  asked  "What  do  you  see  in  that 
picture?"  he  is  as  likely  to  enumerate  as  to  describe.  If 
lie  is  asked  "What  is  that  picture  about?"  he  is  much 


THE  CONDUCT  OF  AN  EXAMINATION  63 

more  likely  to  describe.  Since  the  object  is  to  find  out 
whether  the  three-year-old  can  enumerate,  and  whether 
the  seven-year-old  can  describe,  it  is  important  to  ad- 
here to  the  exact  form  of  the  question  that  is  most  favor- 
able to  an  expression  of  the  ability  to  'be  tested  in  each 
case.  Immediate  memory  for  a  series  of  numerals  read 
to.  the  subject  is  very  much  dependent  on1  the  rate  and 
rhythm  at  which  they  are  read.  The  most  favorable 
rhythm  is  probably  very  largely  dependent  on  each  indi- 
vidual subject,  and  the  elimination  of  all  rhythm  is  there- 
fore to  the  best  interests  of  uniformity.  But  the  exact 
rate  at  which  the  series  is  read  is  also  very  important. 
A  second  or  two  more  or  less  for  reading  a  series  of  five 
numerals  often  decides  whether  the  response  shall  be  a 
success  or  a  failure.  It  is  therefore  not  permissible  to 
vary  the  rate  from  one  subject  to  another  by  as  much  as 
two  seconds.  The  ability  to  count  the  number  of  taps 
in  an  irregular  series  is  entirely  dependent  on  the  rate, 
and  the  nature  of  this  irregularity.  It  is  therefore  im- 
portant not  only  that  the  series  be  given  in  the  rhythm 
indicated,  but  also  that  it  be  at  the  exact  rate  required. 
The  applicability  of  these  few  instances  can  be  readily 
verified.  The  observant  examiner  using  the  tests  soon 
discovers  others  for  himself  in  abundance. 

An  examiner  is  not  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  tests  or 
qualified  to  do  serious  work  with  them  until  he  has  made 
most  of  the  details  of  the  various  directions  so  much  his 
own  that  he  will  follow  them  automatically.  His  atten- 
tion is  needed  at  all  times  for  other  matters  sufficient  in 
number  and  variety  to  engage  it.  If  it  must  be  used 
largely  in  managing  the  really  mechanical  aspects  of 
testing,  reliability  of  the  results  must  necessarily  be  the 
sacrifice. 

Control  of  the  Subject's  Interest,  Attention,  and  Atti- 
tude. In  order  that  the  subject's  response  may  be  the 
best  he  is  capable  of  giving  he  must  be  interested  in  the 
task  in  hand  and  apply  himself  with  his  best  effort, 


64  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

unhampered  by  any  external  or  internal  distractions. 
External  sources  of  distraction  are  relatively  easily 
guarded  against  and  sufficiently  appreciated  by  most 
examiners.  It  should  be  unnecessary  to  urge  the  need  of 
quiet  and  seclusion  for  the  examining  room.  Sudden 
noises  just  at  the  wrong  moment  are  sure  to  make  the 
results  of  some  tests  entirely  worthless,  and  partly  inval- 
idate the  results  of  others.  Most  of  the  tests  cannot  be 
immediately  repeated  in  exactly  the  same  form  and 
remain  exactly  the  same  tests.  The  value  of  a  secluded 
room  is  often  overlooked.  The  subject  should  be  made 
to  feel  as  far  as  possible  that  the  examination  is  entirely 
private,  and  entirely  unknown  to  his  playmates  or  other 
associates.  In  a  school,  reformatory,  or  other  institu- 
tion where  a  long  series  of  examinations  is  made,  it  is 
not  always  possible  to  keep  children  from  jeering,  taunt- 
ing, or  otherwise  annoying  those  who  have  been  called 
in  to  have  the  "brain  test,"  and  when  a  subject  is  con- 
scious during  the  examination  of  such  a  reception  he  is 
not  likely  to  make  his  best  record.  Such  a  situation, 
although  not  usual,  should  be  guarded  against.  Class 
rooms,  hallways,  rooms  that  are  likely  to  be  entered  by 
others  during  an  examination  should  not  be  used. 

The  examination  room  should  also  be  free  from  visual 
distractions,  the  more  barren  of  furnishings,  pictures, 
and  so  on,  the  better.  A  good  light,  a  table  and  two 
chairs  are  all  that  is  necessary.  The  subject  should  be 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  table,  with  the  examiner  at  the 
side,  having  the  subject  on  his  left.  The  record  blanks 
and  testing  materials  may  then  be  placed  on  the  table 
furthest  away  from  the  subject.  The  examiner  should 
record  all  responses  in  as  incidental  and  inconspicuous 
a  way  as  -possible.  Older  subjects  are  sometimes  con- 
siderably distracted  by  the  examiner's  carefully  record- 
ing of  every  response  made.  If  the  recording  blank  is 
next  to  the  subject,  his  attention  is  sure  to  be  arrested 
repeatedly  by  this  process.  The  testing  material  should 


THE  CONDUCT  OF  AN  EXAMINATION  65 

all  be  placed  face  down,  and  arranged  in  the.  order  in 
which  it  will  be  used  in  the  examination.  Each  part 
should  be  replaced  in  the  same  manner  at  once  after 
using  it.  This  will  eliminate  unnecessary  movement? 
and  delays  on  the  part  of  the  examiner,  and  also  call  the 
attention  and  arouse  the  interest  of  the  subject  to  each 
part  of  the  material  in  its  proper  turn.  It  helps  to  sus- 
tain the  novelty  of  the  procedure,  and  checks  fatigue 
and  ennui. 

The  time  for  the  examinations  should  ;be  considered. 
The  part  of  the  day  in  which  they  are  made  is  in  itself 
not  particularly  important,  except  for  subjects  under 
three  years  of  age.  More  or  less  marked  differences  in 
the  mental  abilities  of  adults  at  different  parts  of  the  day 
have  been  found,  but  these  are  on  the  whole  probably 
smaller  than  are  at  present  measured  by  any  system  of 
general  intelligence  tests.  Resides,  aside  from  the  im- 
mediate effects  of  meals,  or  other  regularly  occurring 
deterrent,  these  daily  variations  vary  with  the  individ- 
ual, the  best  and  poorest  parts  of  the  day  being  not  the 
same  for  all.  The  individual  characteristics  of  the  sub- 
ject in  regard  to  this,  not  being  known  to  the  examiner, 
cannot  be  taken  into  account  in  the  examination.  Any 
part  of  the  morning  or  afternoon  of  the  working  day 
is  satisfactory.  Within  these  limits,  however,  certain 
hours  should  be  avoided.  The  hours  of  the  subject's 
regular  occupation  are  most  favorable,  as,  for  instance, 
the  regular  school  hours  of  school  children.  This  assumes 
that  the  tasks  in  the  examination  will  be  more  interesting 
to  the  subject  than  his  regular  occupation.  To  take  him 
away  from  an  unusually  interesting  occupation  to  be  put 
through  a  series  of  tests  is  likely  to  call  forth  something 
less  than  maximum  effort  in  the  tests.  Hours  before 
or  after  school,  the  noon  hour  and  recesses  particularly, 
should  not  be  used  to  examine  school  children.  A  child 
is  not  likely  to  enthuse  over  a  mental  test  if  his  mind  in 


66  A  HANDBOOK  oi;  AJK.XTAI,  TKSTS 

the  meantime  is  on  the  interesting  games  his  school- 
mates are  playing  just  outside. 

All  external  sources  of  distraction  being  removed,  the 
control  of  the  general  attitude  of  the  subject  is  next.  The 
chief  obstacles  to  a  maximum  effort  that  may  be 
described  under  the  term  of  general  attitude  are  timidity, 
obstinacy,  indifference,  and  over-confidence.  The  elim- 
ination of  these  factors  calls  for  tact  on  the  part  of  the 
examiner.  It  is  difficult  to  lay  down  rules  for  their  con- 
trol. The  natural  fear  and  timidity  of  young  subjects 
can  practically  always  be  entirely  overcome  in  twenty 
minutes  or  so  at  the  most,  if  the  case  is  properly  han- 
dled. If  immediate  methods  fail  to  put  the  child  at  ease, 
he  may  be  left  in  the  examining  room,  with  some  suita- 
ble playthings  while  another  subject  or  two  are  exam- 
ined. Calling  in  the  child's  parents  to  quiet  and  reas- 
sure it  usually  fails  in  its  object. 

Indifference  to  the  tests  is  rarely  found.  The  tasks 
set  are,  on  the  whole,  usually  in  themselves  interesting. 
Exceptions  .occur  with  older  subjects,  but  if  it  is  mere 
indifference,  a  sufficient  motive  can  nearly  always  be 
readily  given  the  subject  that  will  change  this  attitude. 

Over-confidence  is  readily  dispelled  by  giving  the  sub- 
ject a  test  or  two  in  which  he  will  fail,  choosing  the  test 
so  that  the  failure  must  be  obvious  at  once  to  the  sub- 
ject himself. 

The  only  attitude  that  cannot  always  be  overcome 
with  the  best  of  patience  and  tact  is  obstinacy,  when  no 
cause  for  it  can  be  discovered.  The  unconditional  and 
unfounded  *'I  won't,"  be  it  expressed  in  words  or  action, 
is  sometimes  final.  If  the  examiner  fails  in  such  a  case 
the  subject  should  be  dismissed,  and  called  in  again  a 
week  or  more  later.  In  this  second  trial  it  is  usually 
best  to  attempt  to  proceed  at  once  with  the  tests,  with- 
out any  preliminaries,  whatsoever,  and,  above  all  with- 
out any  reference  to  the  previous  visit  and  experience. 
If  possible,  the  case  should  be  tried  by  another  examiner 


THE  CONDUCT  01"  AN  EXAMINATION  67 

the  second  time.  The  cases  in  which  this  kind  of  serious- 
ly unfavorable  attitude  has  to  be  corrected  are  excep- 
tional, but  occur  frequently  enough  to  require  means  of 
control  to  be  at  hand  when  they  do  occur.  They  are 
most  likely  to  occur  in  groups  of  older  children,  all  of 
whom  are  being  examined  by  one  or  two  examiners,  so 
that  the  examinations  extend  over  a  considerable  period. 
In  such  circumstances  extra  precautions  are  necessary 
to  prevent  a  general  spirit  of  antagonism  against  the 
tests  arising  among  those  who  are  yet  to  be  called  in. 

The  examination  should  not  as  a  rule  be  begun  im- 
mediately after  the  arrival  of  the  subject.  The  first  sev- 
eral minutes  are  best  spent  in  getting  him  adjusted,  so 
to  speak,  to  the  situation.  The  exam'ner  tells  him  to 
have  a  chair  at  the  table,  asks  his  name,  age,  where  his 
home  is,  and  general  questions  on  subjects  most  likely 
to  interest  him,  such  as  his  school  work,  teachers,  occu- 
pations, and  so  on.  This  will  serve  the  additional  pur- 
pose of  acquainting  the  examiner  at  once  with  about  the 
level  of  intelligence  he  may  expect  to  find,  so  that  he  will 
know  where  in  the  scale  of  tests  he  should  begin. 

If  he  finds  the  subject  at  ease  the  tests  proper  may 
begin  by  giving  the  subject  a  special  motive  for  putting 
forth  his  best  effort  in  the  tests.  The  control  of  this 
special  motive  varies  widely  with  subjects  of  different 
ages  and  mental  levels.  The  procedure  can  best  be  indi- 
cated by  considering  roughly  three  age  periods,  or  levels 
of  mental  development.  The  first  i^  from  the  mental 
age  of  zero  to  two  years ;  the  second  from  three  to  ten 
years;  and  the  third  from  ten  years  to  maturity. 

For  the  first  age-period  a  conscious  motive  hardly 
comes  into  question.  The  first  desideratum  is  comfort, 
and  wide-awakeness.  A  subject  less  than  two  years 
should  be  held  by  the  mother  or  nurse.  .Such  tests  as 
involve  only  reflex  reaction  call  for  no  further  pre- 
liminaries, but  it  js  best  to  begin  trying  to  attract  the 
attention  and  interest  of  the  child  with  appropriate  toys. 


68  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

A  variety  of  these,  other  than  those  directly  required  in 
the  tests,  should  be  on  hand.     In  general,  the  younger 
the  subject,  the  more  difficult  is  the  task  of  control  for 
examining  purposes.     The  examiner  must  be  more  tact- 
ful and  experienced  in  the  handling  of  young  children 
than  is  necessary  for  older  children  and  he  should  be 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  psychology  of  infancy  and 
early  childhood.     It  is  usually  necessary  to  do  a  great 
many  things  not  outlined  in  the  tests,  in  order  to  attract 
the  child's  attention  and  arouse  his  efforts,  and  the  pro- 
cedure in  the  tests  themselves  must  often  be  varied  some- 
what in   order  to  fit  them   into  the  circumstances  that 
arise.     Not  infrequently   no  response  to  a  test  can  be 
obtained  because  the  child  is  obviously  not  in  a  mood 
to  make  any  response  at  all.     The  last  resort  is  then 
questioning  the  mother  or  nurse  as  to  whether  or  not 
the  child  ever  does  the  things  called  for  in  the  test,  and 
have  her  describe  them.    In  this  questioning  caution  and 
experience  are  also  required.     Leading  questions  are  of 
no  value.     In  the  eyes  of  a  parent  any  effort  merely  to 
walk,   for   example,   is   likely   to  mean   ability   to  walk. 
Questions  requiring  only  a  yes  or  no  answer  should  be 
avoided  where  possible.     The  responses  obtained  from 
the  child  are  on  the  whole  less  clear-cut  and  more  diffi- 
cult of  exact  scoring  than  is  the  case  with  older  children. 
Interpretation   on   the  part  of  the   examiner  must  play 
a   large  role.     The   examiner   untrained   in   psychology, 
and   unfamiliar  with   the  traits   of  young  children,  and 
inexperienced  in  the  use  of  the  tests  should  not  attempt 
to  work  in  this  field  and  place  the  same  reliance  in  the 
results  as  he  might  in  the  results  with  older  children. 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  tests  are  necessarily  less 
accurate,  but  that  they  are  more  difficult  to  employ. 

Subjects  from  three  to  ten  years  of  age  or  of  equiva- 
lent mental  levels,  are  the  easiest  to  manage.  The  tasks 
the  tests  require  them  to  do  are  for  the  i/iost  part  in 
themselves  interesting  and  will  of  themselves  call  forth 


Tin-:  CONDUCT  OF  AN  EXAMINATION  </> 

attention  and  effort.    This  tendency,  however,  should  be 
re-enforced  'by  special  methods  if  there  is  any  occasion 
at  all  for  doing  so.    After  the  preliminary  questions  as  to 
name,  age,  and  so  on,  have  been  asked,  begin  at  once 
with  the  first  test,  chosen  from  an  age-group  about  t\vo 
years  below  the  mental  age  you  have  roughly  judged  he 
may  have.    If  the  first  several  tests  are  found  much  too 
easy  or  much  too  difficult  for  the  subject,  skip  at  once 
to  a  higher  or  lower  point  in  the  scale.     The  subject's 
general  attitude  is  likely  to  be  spoiled  at  the  start  if  the 
first  tests  he  gets  are  so  easy  that  they  make  him  feel 
that  you  have  a  very  poor  opinion  of  his  abilities.    If  the 
first  tests  are  quite  beyond  his  capacities  he  is  likely  to 
be  discouraged  and  feel  that  he  will  not  be  able  to  do  as 
much  as  is  expected  of  him.     Make  sure  that  you  have 
the  subject's  attention  for  each  test.     Watch  his  move- 
ments, eyes  and  expression  constantly,  but  without  star- 
ing or  making  him  self-conscious.     The  habit  of  observ- 
ing carefully  in  indirect  vision  in  an  apparently  inciden- 
tal and  inuifferent  way  should  be  cultivated.     Repeat  the 
initial  "Listen,"  "Look,"  "See  this,"  and  so  on,   in  the 
directions    of    the   test   until    the   subject's   attention    is 
aroused.     In  many  instances  it  is  not  permissible  to  re- 
peat a  test  because  he  did  not  respond  the  first  time  on 
account  of  inattention.     At  the   same   time,  make  sure 
that  the  subject  understands  directions  given  him,  knows 
just  what  he  is  to  do,  in  all  tests  in  which  this  compre- 
hension of  the  directions  is  not  itself  a  part  of  the  test. 
The  aim  of  each  test  is  to  find  out  if  the  subject  is  capa- 
ble of  ^oing   the   task   set  under  the   exact   conditions 
described,    and    when    he    is    making    his    best    effort, 
unhampered    by    any    external    or    internal    distraction. 
Some  of  the  tests  aim  directly  at  the  determination  of 
the  subject's  ability  to  comprehend  directions.     In  th'e 
tests  in  which  this  is  not  the  aim  this  factor  should  be 
eliminated  by  making  sure  that  he  understands.     This 
must  be  done  by  repeating  the  instructions  or  by  varying 


70  A  HANDBOOK  or  MKXTAL  TESTS 

them  in  the  way  that  the  occasion  demands.  So  long  as 
the  task  to  be  done  remains  the  same,  this  procedure 
does  not  effect  the  results.'  It  is  a  matter,  however, 
about  which  the  greatest  caution  needs  to  be  exercised, 
lest  by  these  variations  in  the  procedure  the  nature  of 
the  test  is  thereby  changed.  As  much  as  possible  these 
variations  from  the  usual  procedure  are  given  in  the 
directions  for  the  tests,  but  they  can  meet  only  those  cir- 
cumstances that  arise  more  frequently,  and  occasionally 
the  examiner  must  in  his  own  way  adjust  the  procedure 
to  some  unusual  circumstance  that  has  arisen. 

A  variable  and  fleeting  attention  is  one  of  the  central 
mental  traits  of  all  young  children,  this  being  one  of 
the  last  functions  to  develop  fully.  Therefore,  unless 
unusual  'precautions  are  taken  to  control  this  factor  in 
the  tests  the  response  in  each  test  would  likely  be  largely 
a  result  of  the  degree  of  attention  given  as  much  or  more 
than  of  the  other  functions  involved.  The  final  scoring 
for  a  subject  would  then  indicate  his  ability  to  attend 
rather  than  the  level  of  his  general  mental  development. 
The  tests  themselves  are  so  constructed  as  to  guard 
against  this  ever  present  danger,  by  usually  allowing 
several  trials  and  scoring  a  pass  if  the  subject  succeeds 
in  only  one,  or  two,  or  three  of  them.  A  few  failures  do 
not  count  if  in  one  or  more  successes  he  proves  himself 
capable  of  doing  the  task  set. 

Assuming  that  the  subject's  best  attention  is  secured 
in  each  test,  the  examiner  should  encourage  and  praise 
copiously.  'Praise  is  by  far  the  most  effective  single 
stimulus  to  maximum  effort  that  is  available  for  this  age. 
It  cannot  be  readily  overdone  with  young  children,  and  is 
almost  equally  effective  with  older  children,  if  given  in 
the  proper  form.  For  children  below  eight  or  nine  years 
«repeat  "That  is  very  good,"  "That  is  fine."  "That's'  just 
grand,"  and  similar  remarks,  after  most  of  the  responses 
made  by  the  su'bject.  If  the  subject  himself  remarks 
that  he  has  done  poorly  or  has  failed,  agree  with  him, 


THE  CONDUCT  OF  AN  EXAMINATION  71 

but  explain  that  he  has  still  done  very  well  for  so  diffi- 
cult a  task.  This  will  all  be  entirely  true  if  the  examiner 
himself  has  succeeded  in  making  the  subject  do  the  best 
of  which  he  was  capable,  inasmuch  as  effort  and  not 
accomplishment  alone  deserves  praise. 

Subjects  over  ten,  and  especially  those  approaching 
mental  maturity  often  take  a  different  attitude  from  that 
of  younger  children  towards  mental  examinations.  A 
somewhat  different  set  of  emotions  have  to  be  dealt  with, 
and,  unless  controlled,  will  stand  in  the  way  of  the  sub- 
ject's getting  as  good  a  score  as  he  is  capable  of  attain- 
ing. As  a  rule,  they  have  a  more  or  less  definite  knowl- 
edge of  the  general  purpose  of  the  examination.  They 
often  understand  that  the  aim  is  to  determine  their  grade 
of  intelligence.  To  younger  subjects  the  whole  proced- 
ure usually  appeals  as  some  game,  and  it  is  in  this  gen- 
eral spirit  that  the  examiner  carries  out  these  tests.  The 
nature  of  the  tests  enforces  this  attitude.  The  tests  for 
the  older  subjects  are  different,  and  the  subjects,  especial- 
ly because  of  their  understanding  of  the  aim,  can  no 
longer  be  approached  in  the  game  spirit.  According  to 
just  how  the  subject  regards  the  tests,  his  first  reaction 
on  being  called  into  the  examining  room  may  be  either 
resentment,  embarrassment,  or  mere  excitement.  If  he 
feels  that  he  is  being  examined  to  find  out  whether  he  is 
mentally  normal  or  not  he  is  sure  to  resent  the  procedure, 
and  about  in  proportion  to  his  intelligence,  or  be  embar- 
rassed instead.  Reformatory  and  court  cases  react  in 
this  manner  oftener  than  others.  The  great  majority  of 
the  older  school  children,  although  they  understand  the 
aim  equally  well,  are  concerned  over  the  tests  in  about 
the  same  way  as  they  would  be  over  a  regular  school 
.examination.  This  is  the  most  favorable  attitude  for 
the  tests,  and  it  should  be  the  aim  of  the  examiner  to 
establish  it  by  a  special  procedure  whenever  there  is 
evidence  that  the  subject  does  not  regard  the  examina- 
tion more  or  less  in  this  way.  Undue  excitement  through 


72  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

fear  of  not  making  a  good  record,  or  from  some  other 
cause,  should  likewise  receive  attention. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  control  of  timidity,  obstinacy,  and 
so  on,  with  younger  subjects,  so  here  it  is  difficult  to  lay 
down  rules.  It  is  always  useless  to  argue  the  aim  of  the 
tests  with  the  subject  if  he  is  inclined  to  doubt  your  gen- 
eral statement.  On  the  whole,  the  less  said  before  pro- 
ceeding with  the  actual  tests  the  better.  Make  no  expla- 
nations not  called  for  by  the  remarks  or  behavior  of  the 
subject.  After  the  preliminary  questions,  proceed  at 
once  with  the  tests.  As  you  continue,  do  not  fail  to 
acknowledge  a  good  score  with  some  favorable  com- 
ment. Praise  should  not  be  as  lavish  as  with  younger 
subject's,  but  should  not  be  omitted  where  at  all  in  place, 
and  should  be  put  in  a  form  suitable  to  the  intelligence 
of  the  subject.  Consciousness  of  a  failure  or  poor  score 
should  be  as  scrupulously  combated  as  with  the  younger 
subjects.  No  one  is  so  intelligent  or  capable  but  what 
consciousness  of  success  and  another's  acknowledgment 
of  it  is  a  spur  to  still  better  effort.  With  the  older  sub- 
ject, however,  this  is  no  longer  the  chief  motive  through 
which  his  effort  can  be  controlled.  With  him  the  strong- 
est stimulus  is  his  knowledge  that  his  ability  is  being 
measured,  and  the  natural  pride  that  every  human  being 
takes  in  his  own  mental  powers.  This  the  examiner 
should  keep  in  mind.  It  is  not  objectionable  to  let  the 
subject  see  in  some  of  the  tests  what  mistakes  he  is  mak- 
ing as  he  completes  each  part.  Such  tests  are  especially 
drawing  the  four  lines  of  the  circles  from  memory,  draw- 
ing the  squares  upside-down,  drawing  the  triangles  on 
the  squares,  and  a  few  others.  As  long  as  he  under- 
stands that  an  errorless  score  is  not  expected  a  definite 
knowledge  of  mistakes  made  helps  to  keep  up  the  effort, 
especially  if  he  happens  to  make  some  unusually  good 
scores.  Throughout  the  procedure  the  examiner  should 
be  careful  to  maintain  a  spirit  of  absolute  fairness  to  the 
subject.  Credit  should  be  given  rather  than  withheld 


THE  CONDUCT  OF  AN  EXAMINATION  73 

wherever  there  is  a  reasonable  doubt.  Directions  should 
be  explained  until  there  is  no  question  about  the  subject 
understanding  exactly  what  his  task  is. 

The  time  and  error  scores  are  not  of  equal  value  as  an 
indication  of  mental  ability  in  all  the  tests.  This  may  be 
seen  from  the  different  formulae  used  in  combining  the 
time  and  error  scores,  which  by  no  means  attribute  equal 
values  to  the  two  scores  in  all  cases.  While  on  the  whole 
it  does  not  make  a  serious  difference  whether  the  subject 
works  fast  at  the  expense  of  accuracy,  or  works  carefully 
and  takes  more  time,  there  are  limits  outside  of  which 
this  no  longer  holds  true.  The  average  subject  can  do 
some  of  the  tests  without  any  error  if  he  takes  enough 
time,  but  this  combined  time  and  error  score  would  be 
poorer  than  if  he  divided  his  effort  more  equally  towards 
getting  a  good  score  in  both  time  and  error.  Likewise, 
the  aim  of  the  subject  should  not  be  too  exclusively 
directed  to  getting  a  good  time  score,  inasmuch  as  his 
errors  will  then  increase  out  of  proportion  to  the  time 
that  he  saves.  The  examiner  should  keep  in  mind  about 
what  the  average  time  and  error  scores  are,  and  the 
limits  of  their  variation  above  and  below  this  average. 
If  the  subject  seems  to  be  going  to  an  extreme  in  any 
test  he  should  l>e  cautioned  to  "take  his  time,"  or  "be 
careful  about  mistakes,"  or  to  "see  how  fast  'he  can  do 
it."  Where  general  tendencies  of  this  sort  have  been 
found  special  directions  on  it  are  given  with  the  direc- 
tions for  the  tests.  But  occasionally  still  further  precau- 
tions are  necessary  with  some  subjects.  The  tendency 
to  do  a  test  fast  at  the  expense  of  accuracy  occurs  more 
frequently  with  different  subjects  than  the  tendency  to 
work  unduly  slowly  but  accurately. 

The  necessity  of  the  examiner  adjusting  himself  in 
his  own  general  attitude  and  conduct  to  the  mental  level 
of  the  subject  he  is  examining  needs  no  special  explana- 
tion. He  should  foe  equally  at  ease  with  the  "baby  talk" 
in  the  examination  of  infants,  the  childish  mannerisms 


74  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

of  the  young  child,  and  the  dignity  of  mental  maturity. 
To  fail  seriously  in  this  inevitably  leads  to  disastrous 
results.  One  can  readily  imagine  the  reaction  of  a  sub- 
ject of  ten  or  more  if  he  were  approached  as  though  he 
were  a  child  of  two  or  three.  But  all  possibility  of  get- 
ting a  maximum  effort  from  a  subject  is  easily  removed 
by  a  lesser  degree  of  failure  on  the  part  of  the  examiner 
to  approach  the  subject  in  the  right  way.  While  few 
examiners  err  in  this  direction,  many  fail  to  get  down  to 
the  level  of  the  younger  subject,  and  among  these  the 
best  trained  psychologists  are  sometimes  included. 

A  few  further  considerations  concerned  with  securing 
th,e  subject's  maximum  effort  need  to  be  taken  into  ac- 
count. Their  importance  deserves  a  separate  discussion. 
These  are:  (1)  the  presence  of  a  third  person  in  the  ex- 
amining room  ;  (2)  recording  responses  and  taking  notes  ; 
(3)  fatiguing  the  subject;  (4)  order  of  giving  the  tests 
and  range  of  tests  to  be  used. 

The  Presence  of  a  Third  Person  in  the  Examining 
Room.  The  effect  that  the  presence  of  others  may  have 
on  the  subject  under  examination  depends  in  the  first 
place,  of  course,  on  the  particular  person,  personal  traits 
of  the  individual  subject.  But  it  depends  also,  in  general, 
on  h'is  age  and  mental  level.  The  former  must  be  left  to 
the  observation  and  judgment  of  the  examiner  with  each 
subject.  With  regard  to  the  latter  certain  general  facts 
may  be  noted.  Subjects  less  than  two  years  are  rarely 
affected  by  other  persons  being  present  and  for  subjects 
a  year  or  less  the  presence  of  the  mother  or  nurse  is  re- 
quired. On  the  whole,  older  subjects  are  less  affected  by 
the  presence  of  strangers  than  by  that  of  parents,  other 
relatives,  their  teachers,  or  other  close  associates.  The 
presence  of  a  stranger,  or  even  a  number  of  them,  is  often 
not  particularly  objectionable  in  the  case  of  subjects  less 
than  ten  years.  For  subjects  beyond  this  age  or  mental 
level,  the  presence  of  any  third  person  should  be  abso- 
lutely forbidden.  Likewise,  for  all  subjects  above  the 


THE  CONDUCT  OF  AN  EXAMINATION  75 

age  of  two  years  the  presence  of  a  parent,  other  relative, 
or  close  associate  of  the  subject  should  not  be  permitted 
under  any  circumstances.  Whenever  a  third  person  is 
allowed  to  be  present  in  any  case  he  should  be  seated 
outside  the  direct  line  of  vision  of  the  subject,  should 
make  absolutely  no  remarks,  remain  quiet  and  apparently 
as  indifferent  and  unobservant  of  the  subject  and  the 
examination  as  possible.  It  is  always  difficult  and  some- 
times impossible  to  instruct  a  parent  in  such  a  way  that 
he  will  adhere  to  this  rule.  But  even  when  he  does  adhere 
to  it  the  subject  will  not  fail  to  be  distracted  in  various 
ways  by  his  presence.  The  only  possible  satisfactory 
procedure  is  not  to  allow  his  presence.  Subjects  alcove 
ten  years  almost  invariably  react  unfavorably  to  the 
presence  of  any  third  person,  because  of  embarrassment 
caused  perhaps  chiefly  by  his  having  some  knowledge  of 
the  purpose  of  the  examination.  It  is  much  easier  to 
make  a  cast-iron  rule  and  adhere  to  it  literally  at  all 
times  than  to  allow  exceptions  where  permissible  and 
adhere  to  the  rule  where  necessary. 

Recording  Responses  and  Taking  Notes.  All  responses 
should  be  recorded  in  the  briefest  possible  manner,  on  a 
convenient  blank  such  as  is  furnished  with  the  testing 
materials.  Every  effort  has  been  made  to  make  this 
blank  as  compact  and  convenient  as  possible.  The  re- 
sponses to  nearly  all  of  the  lower  age  tests  are  scored 
directly  as  passes  or  failures,  which  may  be  indicated  on 
the  blank  with  plus  and  minus  signs,  respectively.  Where 
the  pass  or  failure  is  determined  by  combining  the  time 
and  error  scores,  as  is  the  case  with  all  the  higher  age 
tests,  too  much  time  should  not  be  taken  while  the  subject 
is  left  unoccupied  to  make  the  computations.  The  time  and 
number  of  errors  alone  should  be  recorded  in  the  marginal 
spaces  provided  for  this,  and  the  scores  computed  at  any 
convenient  moment  during  the  examination  while  the 
subject  is  at  work  on  another  test,  or  after  the  examina- 
tion is  completed.  A  card  is  furnished  with  the  testing 


76  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

materials  that  gives  each  test  having  a  time  and  error 
score,  and  which  occurs  in  two  or  more  age-groups,  to- 
gether with  the  scoring  formula  and  scores  required  for 
passing  at  each  age.  With  the  aid  of  this  card  each  such 
test  can  be  scored  rapidly  in  all  its  age-groups  from  the 
computed  score  combining  time  and  errors.  It  is  con- 
ducive to  both  convenience  and  accuracy  in  counting  up 
the  results  to  place  all  the  scorings  for  the  a's,  b's,  c's, 
and  so  on,  immediately  to  the  right  of  these  letters,  and 
to  place  all  the  scorings  for  the  test  numbers,  1,  2,  3,  and 
so  on,  immediately  under  the  numbers.  The  number  of 
tests  passed  in  an  age-group  can  then  be  easily  counted 
by  noting  the  number  of  plus  signs  in  the  interlinear 
spaces,  without  confusing  them  with  the  other  plus  and 
minus  signs.  This  number  of  tests  passed  in  each  age- 
group  may  then  be  placed  in  the  left  margin  of  the  blank, 
which  will  bring  them  all  together  in  a  vertical  column 
for  adding. 

Time  should  not  be  taken  during  the  examination  to 
take  additional  notes  on  chance  observations  not  directly 
concerned  with  the  responses  of  the  subject  and  their 
scoring.  Only  when  the  response  is  of  such  a  nature  that 
the  manner  of  its  scoring  is  for  the  time  being  in  doubt 
should  the  response  itself  be  recorded  or  special  note 
made  on  it,  so  that  it  may  be  considered  at  leisure  after 
the  examination.  For  an  experienced  examiner  this  will 
hardly  ever  be  necessary.  Observations  of  special  inter- 
est can  be  recorded,  largely,  immediately  after  the  ex- 
amination. They  often  are  of  considerable  value  in  giv- 
ing additional  information  concerning  special  traits  of 
the  subject.  But  such  observations,  no  matter  how  strik- 
ing, should  never  be  used  in  determining  the  subject's 
final  standing,  or  level  of  mental  development.  Only  the 
number  of  tests  passed  should  count  in  this.  One  of  the 
main  features  of  mental  examination  by  a  system  of  men- 
tal tests  is  its  objective  character,  the  independence  of 
the  final  result  from  the  judgment  of  the  examiner.  If 


THE  CONDUCT  OF  AN  EXAMINATION  77 

the  determination  of  the  subject's  mental  capacity  is  to 
be  made  after  all  partly  through  the  use  the  examiner 
makes  of  side  observations  while  giving  the  tests  the 
value  cf  the  test  result  itself  is  mostly  destroyed. 

The  elimination  of  everything  but  the  essentials  in  the 
recording  of  responses  during  the  examination  itself  is 
for  a  double  purpose.  .First,  it  leaves  the  examiner  freer 
to  attend  more  carefully  to  the  other  matters  in  the  con- 
duct of  the  examination.  Secondly,  it  removes  a  con- 
siderable source  of  distraction  to  the  subject.  It  is  a  dis- 
traction to  have  the  subject  wait  between  tests  while  the 
examiner  takes  notes.  To  the  older  subjects  the  careful 
takinr  down  of  his  responses  or  other  observations  that 
he  knows  are  about  himself  is  likely  in  itself  to  be  dis- 
quieting. For  the  latter  reason  it  is  also  entirely  objec- 
tionable to  have  a  stenographer  present  to  take  down  re- 
sponses in  full.  The  stenographer  can  add  but  little  to 
the  value  of  the  record  as  a  record,  of  the  experienced  ex- 
aminer, and  his  presence  and  note-taking  are  certain  to 
detract  much  from  the  value  of  the  subject's  responses 
as  expressions  of  his  abilities. 

Fatiguing  the  Subject.  Only  general  statements  can. 
be  made  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  time  that  may  be 
spent  on  an  examination  in  a  single  sitting  without  un- 
duly fatiguing  the  subject.  No  definite  observations 
have  yet  been  made  directly  on  this  question.  On  the 
whole  nearly  an  hour  is  necessary  to  examine  a  subject 
with  a  mental  age  between  six  and  ten  years.  The  lower 
the  mental  age  the  less  time  it  takes,  in  general,  to  deter- 
mine it,  both  because  a  smaller  number  of  age-groups  of 
tests  need  to  be  used  and  because  the  tests  themselves  in 
the  lower  age-groups  take  less  time  to  give.  The  higher 
age  tests  are  probably  on  the  whole  more  fatiguing  than 
the  others.  The  subject  works  on  these  tests  more  with 
an  artificial  interest,  instead  of  with  the  natural  spon- 
taneous interest  of  the  younger  subject  that  is  given 
tasks  that  are  in  themselves  more  interesting.  The  ap- 


78  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

plication  is  closer,  and  the  effort  more  voluntary  and 
forced.  But  whether  these  several  things  are  sufficient 
to  cause  a  degree  of  fatigue  that  would  seriously  affect 
the  scores  is  questionable.  General  observations  on  the 
subject's  reactions  during  the  examination  do  not  often 
indicate  any  effect  of  fatigue.  It  is  safe  to  make  the 
assumption  that  the  great  majority  of  subjects,  of  what- 
ever age,  will  not  be  unduly  fatigued  in  the  time  neces- 
sary to  complete  the  examination.  But  there  is  no  ob- 
jection to  giving  two  sittings  to  a  subject.  If  this  is 
done  the  subject  should  be  dismissed  at  the  end  of  the 
first  sitting  with  the  statement  that  this  is  enough  for 
today,  that  you  do  not  want  to  get  him  too  tired,  and  that 
he  may  come  in  again  some  other  time  to  do  the  re- 
mainder. In  schools  and  institutions  this  procedure  in- 
volves hardly  any  inconvenience,  none  on  the  part  of  the 
examiner,  and  causes  but  little  loss  of  time.  The  incon- 
venience to  the  subject  of  coming  a  second  time  is  the 
chief  objection.  On  this  question  of  one  or  two  sittings, 
the  examiner  should  follow  the  rule  of  completing  an  ex- 
amination in  one  sitting  unless  special  reasons  appear 
.by  the  time  the  first  four  tests  of  each  age-group  have 
been  given  that  favor  a  second  sitting. 

Order  of  Giving  Tests  and  Range  of  Tests  to  be  Used. 
The  tests  should  be  given  in  the  order  as  found  in  the 
text,  unless  special  reasons  appear  in  any  individual  case 
to  take  a  test  or  two  out  of  its  order.  It  is  best,  however, 
to  use  only  the  first  four  tests  in  each  age-group  and  com- 
plete the  range  of  tests  required  first  in  this  way.  When 
this  is  done  the  second  four  tests  in  each  age-group 
should  be  given  in  the  same  way.  In  this  way  the  tests 
can  be  carried  further  without  bunching  so  many  at  the 
end  that  are  too  difficult  for  the  subject,  and  it  avoids 
also  giving  so  many  at  the  beginning  that  are  too  easy 
for  him,  and  thus  helps  to  maintain  the  proper  attitude 
towards  the  tests  on  the  part  of  the  subject.  The  ex- 
amination should  begin  with  an  age-group  about  two 


THE  CONDUCT  OF  AN  EXAMINATION  79 

years  below  the  mental  age  that  is  expected,  and  con- 
tinue in  both  directions  until  all  the  tests  are  passed  in 
the  lowest  age-group  used,  and  none  are  passed  in  the 
highest  age-group  used.  An  experienced  examiner  may 
allow  exceptions  to  this  rule,  when  he  is  certain  that  no 
higher  age  tests  would  be  passed  and  that  all  lower  age 
tests  would  be  passed  should  they  be  given. 

Using  the  Scale  of  Tests  in  Abbreviated  Form.  The 
present  scale  of  tests  may  be  used  in  an  abbreviated  form, 
by  omitting  some  of  the  tests  from  each  age-group.  The 
reliability  of  the  result  is  thereby  reduced,  but  not  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  tests  omitted.  When  time 
does  not  permit  using  all  the  tests,  or  when  only  an  ap- 
proximately correct  mental  age  is  required,  the  first  two, 
three,  or  four  tests  of  each  age-group  should  be  used. 
If  there  is  motor  in-coordination,  or  visual  or  auditory 
defect,  or  speech  disturbance  that  would  seriously  inter- 
fere with  the  performance  of  some  of  the  tests,  the  tests 
involved  may  be  omitted,  even  though  it  results  in  an 
unequal  number  of  tests  remaining  in  the  different  age- 
groups.  Usually  enough  tests  will  remain  to  give  a 
much  more  reliable  indication  of  the  general  level  of 
mental  development  than  could  be  secured  without  the 
tests.  Again,  some  children  are  especially  hesitant  in 
giving  verbal  responses.  This  is  true  of  rural  children 
as  a  class.  When  this  tendency  is  marked  the  following 
tests  only  may  be  used.  Ill,  2,  3,  7,  8;  IV,  3,  4,  5,  6;  V, 
1,  2,  7,  8;  VI,  2,  6,  7,  8;  VII,  2,  3,  7,  8;  VIII,  1,  3,  4,  8; 
IX,  1,  4,  7,  8;  X,  1,  2,  4,  7;  XI,  1,  4,  5,  8;  XII,  1,  2,  6,  8; 
XIII-XV,  3,  4,  5,  7.  These  four  tests  from  each  age- 
group  are  not  in  all  instances  those  requiring  the  least 
verbal  response,  as  another  matter  had  to  be  taken  into 
consideration  to  secure  correct  results.  Many  of  the  non- 
verbal tests  have  also  the  greatest  discriminative  capa- 
city, and  if  only  the  latter  were  used  the  mental  age  as 
determined  by  these  tests  alone  would  tend  to  be  too  low. 


80  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

Rules  for  Determining  Mental  Age.  The  number  of 
months  that  each  passed  test  counts  for  in  determining 
the  mental  age  depends  on  the  number  of  tests  used  in 
each  age-group  and  the  age  intervals  between  age-groups. 
When  all  tests  in  each  age-group  have  been  used  it  is  as 
follows  : 

Age-groups  .....  3  Mos.  6  Mos.  12  Mos.  18  Mos.     II     III    IV,  etc. 
Months  per  test.  .       .6          ~gr         1.2  1.2        )&    1.5         1.5 

*'*  2.V 

There  are  three  conditions  calling  for  slightly  differ- 
ent procedures  in  determining  the  mental  age.  For  men- 
tal ages  of  about  four  to  eleven  only  the  second  comes 
into  consideration. 

(1)  When  there  are  some  unpassed  tests  below  age- 
group  HI.  Example: 

Age-groups   .......  3  Mos.    6  Mos.     12  Mos.     18  Mos.    II    III    IV 

Number  passed  .....        5  5  5  4310 


The  mental  age  in  this  is  12  +  (4  X  1.2)  +  (3  X 
+  (1  X  1.5)  =  21.9  months. 

(2)  When  there  are  no  unpassed  tests  below,  age-group 
III  and  not  more  than  two  passed  tests  in  age-group  XV. 

Give  the  subject  the  mental  age  corresponding  to  the 
highest  age-group  in  which  he  passes  all  the  tests  and 
below  which  he  passes  all.  Then  add  one  year  for  every 
eight  tests  passed  in  all  age-groups  above  this  point. 
Example  : 

Age-groups  ..............     Ill        IV         V        VI        VII        VIII 

Number  passed  ..........      8863  0 

The  mental  age  in  this  case  is  4+  (6+3s+2)-5^  years. 

(3)  When   three   or   more   tests   are   passed   in   age- 
group  XV.     Use  the  scores  made  in  the  last  ten  tests 
only.    These  tests  are  indicated  by  the  numbers  1  to  1O 
in   parenthesis.     They   are,    (1)  "Giving  the   associated: 


THE  CONDUCT  o*  AN  EXAMINATION  81 

numbers  for  the  dissected  parts  of  a  simple  form";  (2) 
"Crossing  out  q,  r,  s,  t  in  a  pied  text";  and  the  eight 
tests  in  age-group  XIII-XV.  The  average  scores,  or 
norms,  for  these  ten  tests  are  as  follows  : 

Age    ............  ...       1#          11  12  13  14  15 

Average  score  .......     210     *  175          150         130         113          100 

Difference  ..........          ^35  25  20  17  13 

The  average  of  the  ten  scores  on  these  ten  "tests  are 
210  for  normal  ten-year-olds,   175  for  eleven-year-olds^ 
and  so  on.    To  find  the  mental  age  of  any  subject  exam- 
ined, compute  his  average  score  for  the  ten  tests. 
Example  : 

Average  score  on  the  ten  tests  is  145.    The  mental  age 


is  then    10  I  150~145  —  i?  J    vears 
•^T-  ~  *•*  20    - 


This  procedure  makes  it  possible  to  score  mental  ages 
correctly  up  to  and  including  the  maximum  mental  age 
of  fifteen.  This  cannot  be  done  with  the  Binet-Simon 
method  of  scoring  the  mental  age  when  the  subject 
passes  several  of  the  tests  in  the  highest  age-group  of 
the  scale.  Such  a  subject  would  also  pass  a  few  still 
more  difficult  tests  than  those  of  the  highest  age-group,. 
were  such  tests  given.  The  mental  age  as  determined 
by  this  old  method  would  consequently  be  too  low.  This 
is  likely  to  be  the  case  for  all  true  mental  ages  much 
above  eleven.  In  some  rare  instances  a  subject  who 
passes  three  or  more  tests  in  age-group  XV  will  make  so 
very  low  a  score  in  one  or  two  of  the.  other  tests  that  his 
average  for  the  ten  tests  gives  him  no  higher,  or  even  a 
slightly  lower  mental  age  than  he  gets  by  the  Binet- 
Simon  method  of  scoring.  This  becomes  less  and  less 
possible,  of  course,  the  higher  the  true  mental  age.  In- 
such  a  case  the  method  of  scoring  should  be  used  that. 
gives  the  subject  the  higher  mental  age. 


82  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

Determining  the  Grade  of  Intelligence.  Mental  ages 
do  not  indicate  the  grade  of  intelligence,  except  for 
adults.  To  find  the  latter,  divide  the  mental  age  by  the 
age  jLjsing  the  fractions  of  a  year  in  both  the  mental  age 
and  -age.  The  resulting  figure  gives  what  has  been 
termed  the  "Intelligence  quotient."  These  intelligence 
quotients  for  different  ages  and  mental  ages  are  given 
in  the  Appendix  below.  Development  of  intelligence 
stops  approximately  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  so  far  as  it  has 
been  determined  by  these  tests,  and  the  scale  registers 
mental  ages  up  to  this  point,  which  is  the  highest  pos- 
sible mental  age,  since  mental  age  means  the  mental 
level  of  the  average  child  of  corresponding  chronological 
age;  The  mental  age  should,  therefore,  never  be  divided 
by  more  than  fifteen,  no  matter  how  much  older  the  sub- 
ject may  be.  But  some  subjects  are  more  intelligent 
than  the  average  adult.  These  cannot  be  given  a  mental 
age.  but  their  grade  of  intelligence  is  still  indicated  by 
the  score  they  get  on  the  last  ten  tests  in  the  scale.  This 
score  will  then,  of  course,  be  better  than  100,  that  is, 
below  100,  as  it  represents  the  combined  time  and 
error  scores.  In  order  to  make  each  test  count  for  as 
much  as  any  other  in  this  group  of  ten,  the  scoring  for- 
mulae have  been  so  adjusted  that  the  average  score  for 
fifteen-year-olds  is  just  100  for  each  of  the  ten  tests. 
Suppose  now  that  a  subject  aged  thirteen  gets  an  aver- 
age score  of  90  on  these  ten  tests.  This  may  then  be 
taken  to  represent  his  grade  of  intelligence  directly  when 
compared  with  another  of  the  same  age.  It  represents 
a  given  level  of  mental  development,  in  the  same  way  as 
does  the  mental  age.  If  his  grade  of  intelligence  is  to 
be  compared  with  that  of  another  of  a  different  age,  it 
should  be  expressed  by^~  ^^Q~  -1.44.  This  1.44  has  rough- 
ly the  same  value  as  the  intelligence  quotient  in  other 
instances. 


CHAPTER  IV 
DIRECTIONS  FOR  GIVING  THE  TESTS 

The  following  description  of  the  tests  gives  them  by 
name  and  number,  arranged  in  order  under  each  age- 
group.  The  age-groups  are  indicated  by  Roman  numerals, 
except  those  below  two  years.  The  number  of  each  test 
in  an  age-group  is  given  in  Arabic,  and  the  separate  trials 
or  parts  of  a  test  are  shown  by  letters.  Thus,  IX,  7,  a 
is  the  first  trial  in  the  seventh  test  of  age-group  nine. 
To  facilitate  its  use,  the  text  is  freed  from  all  matter  not 
essential  to  giving  the  tests  or  scoring  responses.  Com- 
ments of  secondary  importance  in  using  them,  or  chiefly 
of  scientific  interest,  are  collected  in  the  next  chapter. 
In  the  testing  materials  the  test  numbers  are  given  on  the 
backs  of  the  cards  used,  but  not  on  the  paper  blanks 
needed  in  some  of  the  tests.  For  the  former  these  test 
numbers  identify  the  material  required  in  each  test,  so 
that  no  further  description  is  necessary  in  the  text.  Thus, 
in  Test  VII,  4  the  directions  read,  "Show  the  pictures  for 
this  test  in  their 'order,"  etc.,  without  indicating  the  nature 
of  the  pictures.  But  in  the  materials  furnished  will  be 
found  the  four  cards  needed,  labeled  VII,  4a,  VII,  4b, 
VII,  4c  and  VII  4d,  respectively,  on  the  back.  The  direc- 
tions for  giving  a  test  usually  identify  also  the  paper 
blank  that  is  required.  The  following  description,  how- 
ever, of  this  paper  material  will  be  helpful  to  the  beginner. 

Test  III,  8.  A  six-inch  square  of  paper  with  two  large 
squares  on  it,  one  inside  the  other,  and  a  dot  between  the 
upper  sides  of  the  two.  The  child  draws  a  line  between 
the  parallel  sides  of  the  squares,  beginning  at  the  dot. 

Test  IV,  5.  Same  as  in  III,  8,  except  that  the  figure  is 
an  irregular  one  instead  of  a  square. 

83 


34  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAI,  TESTS 

Tests  VI,  7,  and  VIII,  7.  A  plain  six-inch  square  of 
paper  for  paper  folding  tests.  The  examiner  must  make 
sure  that  he  does  the  folding  exactly  as  called  for  in  the 
directions. 

Tests  VIII,  4,  and  XIII-XV,  6.  An  eight  by  ten-inch 
sheet  of  paper  with  six  one-inch  squares  on  it.  Each  of 
the  six  squares  has  a  dot  in  its  center  and  in  the  middle  of 
each  side. 

Tests  IX,  6,  XI,  8,  XII,  6,  and  XIII-XV,  3.  An  eight 
by  ten-inch  piece  of  paper  with  ten  one  and  a  half-inch 
circles.  Each  circle  has  a  dot  in  its  center  and  in  the  cir- 
cumference at  the  top,  bottom  and  right  and  left  sides. 

Tests  X,  7,  XI,  5,  and  XII,  3.  A  six  by  eight-inch  sheet 
of  paper  with  pied  alphabet  on  it,  and  q  r  s  t  at  the  top. 

Tests  XI,  6,  XII,  4,  and  XIII-XV,  1.  A  six  by  eight- 
inch  sheet  of  paper  with  forty  simple  problems  in  adding, 
subtracting,  multiplying  and  dividing,  arranged  in  two 
columns. 

Tests  XII,  7,  and  XIII-XV,  4.  A  six  by  eight-inch  sheet 
of  paper  with  a  confusing  text  of  directions  to  be  followed, 
beginning,  "With  your  pencil  make  a  dot " 

Tests  XII,  8,  and  XIII-XV,  5.  An  eight  by  ten-inch 
sheet  of  paper  with  a  large  square,  divided  into  quarters 
by  heavy  lines,  these  quarters  being  divided  again  into 
quarters  by  lighter  lines,  and  each  resulting  small  square 
having  a  dot  in  its  center  and  in  the  middle  of  each  side. 

Tests  XIII-XV,  7.  An  eight  by  ten-inch  sheet  of  paper 
with  six  two-inch  squares  on  it.  Each  square  has  a  dot 
in  the  center  and  four  dots  inside  the  square. 

Score  sheet.  Five  and  a  half  by  eight-inch  sheets  with 
the  scoring  blanks.  The  score  sheet  is  made  as  small  and 
condensed  as  possible,  for  convenience  in  scoring  and  to 
avoid  the  'bulky  accumulation  of  records.  Tests  not  in- 
volving the  combining  of  a  time  and  error  score  may  be 
scored  at  once  on  the  score  sheet  with  plus  and  minus 
signs,  the  plus  indicating  a  pass  and  the  minus  a  failure 
in  the  test.  These  signs  should  be  placed  to  the  right  of 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  GIVING  TESTS  85 

the  letters  a,  b,  c,  etc.,  indicating  the  trials  of  a  test,  and 
under  the  Arabic  numerals  indicating  the  test  1  to  8  in 
each  age-group  The  total  number  of  tests  passed  in  each 
age-group  is  then  placed  on  the  short  dotted  line  in  the 
left  margin,  preceding  the  Roman  numeral  indicating  the 
age-group.  In  the  available  marginal  spaces  on  the  right 
and  at  the  bottom  the  tests  involving  the  combining  of  a 
time  and  error  score  are  listed  again  with  headings,  t,  e, 
T,  E,  and  S.  Under  or  to  the  right  of  t  and  e  record  the 
time  in  seconds  and  the  number  of  errors  per  trial  of  a 
test.  For  the  T  and  E  record  the  average  time  and  total 
number  of  errors  in  the  test,  as  called  for  in  the  directions 
for  scoring  the  test.  For  the  S  record  the  combined  time 
and  error  score.  The  test  may  then  be  scored  in  the  differ- 
ent age-groups  in  which  it  occurs  in  the  score  sheet,  with 
plus  and  minus  signs  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  tests. 

Scores  required  for  passing.  A  six  'by  eight-inch  card 
giving  the  scoring  formulae  and  scores  required  for  pass- 
ing for  tests  having  a  time  and  error  score,  and  which 
occur  in  more  than  one  age-group.  This  card  eliminates 
the  necessity  of  searching  through  the  text  for  this  data 
in  scoring  the  test  for  the  several  age-groups  in  which  it 
is  used. 

The  materials  furnished  with  the  text  does  not  include 
a  series  of  five  weights  that  are  required  in  tests  V,  3, 
and  IX,  2,  and  are  used  also  as  blocks  merely  in  V,  1,  V, 
7,  and  VI,  8,  nor  such  toys  and  things  as  are  needed  for 
children  with  mental  ages  below  three  years.  The  latter 
may  be  secured  in  any  toy  shop,  if  these  lower  age  tests 
are  to  be  used.  The  weights  should  weigh  6,  12,  18,  24, 
and  30  grams,  but  a  series  weighing  3,  6,  9,  12,  and  15 
grams,  obtainable  from  C.  H.  Stocking  &  Co.,  Chicago, 
may  be  substituted,  as  they  give  the  same  results.  The 
series  is  easily  made  out  of  cardboard  pill  boxes,  filled 
with  pieces  of  metal  or  shot,  wrapped  in  cotton  with 
diluted  liquid  glue  to  prevent  any  rattling.  The  rectan- 


86  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

gular  boxes  with  square  ends,  and  about  Ixlxl^  inches 
are  best.    ,For  .convenience  of  identification  they  may  be 
marked  on  the  bottoms  with  the  letters  B,  I,  N,  E,  T  in 
the  order  of  their  weights.    If  the  gram  weights  are  not 
on  hand  the  following  coins  may  be  used  in  weighing 
the  boxes  to  get  them  of  correct  weights. 
For    6  grams  use  2  pennies 
For  12  grams  use  1  dime    and  3  pennies 
For  18  grams  use  1  dime    and  5  pennies 
For  24  grams  use  1  dime    and  7  pennies 
For  30  grams  use  2  dimes  and  8  pennies 
A    stop-watch    is    not    absolutely    necessary,    but    adds 
greatly  to  the  convenience  of  testing,  and  eliminates  any 
chance  of  error  that  might  be  made  in  using  an  ordinary 
watch.     One   who   expects   to   use   the   tests   frequently 
should  have  a  stop-watch.     In  all  time  scores  the  time  is 
expressed  in  seconds. 

In  an  examination  the  cards  and  paper  blanks  of  the 
same  size  should  be  put  together,  arranged  in  the  order 
of  the  test  numbers  on  them,  and  placed  face  down  on 
the  table  as  far  away  from  the  subject  as  possible. 

'AGE  THREE  MONTHS 

1.  CARRYING  HAND  OR  OBJECT  TO  MOUTH  a.  Place 
a  small  block  or  other  object  in  the  child's  right  hand, 
and  note  if  it  is  carried  to  the  mouth.  Repeat  for  the  left 
hand. 

b.  If  the  object  is  not  carried  to  the  mouth  in  these 
trials  observe  the  movements  of  the  child  throughout  the 
examination,  and  note  if  the  hand  is  ever  carried  to  the 
mouth  at  will. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  in  either  "a"  or  "b"  it  is  determined 
that  the  child  has  sufficient  motor  co-ordination  to  carry 
the  hand  to  the  mouth  more  or  less  at  will,  and  not  merely 
through  random,  chance  movements.  Sucking  of  finger 
or  object  held  in  hand  is  not  sufficient  evidence. 


AGE  THREE  MONTHS  87, 

2.  REACTION   TO   SUDDEN   SOUNDS,     a.     Snap   a  tele- 
graphic snapper  within  two  inches  of  the  ear.    Give  not 
more  than  two  trials  for  each  ear,  and  at  intervals  of  a 
minute  or  more.    If  a  satisfactory  reaction  is  not  obtained, 
proceed  with  the  next  test  or  two  and  then  try  the  fol- 
lowing : 

b.  Clap  your  hands  loudly  near  the  child's  head,  some- 
what back  of  the  ears,  so  the  child  will  not  see  the  moving- 
hands.  Give  one  trial  for  each  ear,  at  an  interval  of  a 
minute  or  more. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  reacts  readily  with  a  marked 
"start"  or  wink. 

3.  BINOCULAR  COORDINATION,    a.    With  the  child  facing 
away  from  the  window  or  other  source  of  light,  move 
some  bright  object,  an  electric  lamp,  or  other  shining- 
object  that  is  found  to  attract  the  child's  gaze  readily,  in 
front  of  his  face,  first  from  right  to  left  and  back,  then 
down  directly  in  front  of  the  face  and  up  again,  then 
diagonally.     Keep  the  object  about  two  and  a  half  feet 
from  the  eyes.    Move  to  extreme  positions  in  all  cases. 

b.  If  the  child's  eyes  do  not  follow  the  moving  object 
readily,  or  very  far  in  any  direction,  repeat  the  test  in  a 
darkened  room,  with  a  lighted  candle.  Avoid  fatiguing 
by  too  many  trials  in  immediate  succession. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  no  marked  inco-ordination  occurs, 
even  when  the  e)*es  are  turned  to  quite  extreme  positions. 

4.  TURMNC;  Evi:s  TO  OBJECT  IN  MARGINAL  FIELD  OF 
VISION*,     a.     \Yith  the  child  facing  away  from  the  window 
or  other  source  of  light,  move  some  bright  object,  an 
electric  lamp  or  other  shining  object  that  is  found  to 
attract  the  child's  gaze  readily,  slowly  into  the  child's 
field  of  vision  from  the  back  and  side,  and  keep  it  in  the 
marginal  field.    Try  several  times,  alternating  sides. 

b.  If  a  satisfactory  reaction  is  not  obtained  in  "a", 
repeat  the  test  in  a  darkened  room,  with  a  lighted  candle. 
Avoid  fatigue  by  too  many  trials-  in  immediate  succession- 


88  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  turns  the  head  and  eyes 
towards  the  object,  or  better,  if  the  eyes  are  turned  much 
without  turning  the  head. 

5.  WINKING  AT  AX  OBJECT  THREATENING  TIN;  KYKS. 
Make  a  sudden  pass  towards  the  child's  eyes  with  the 
flat  side  of  a  book,  a  hat,  or  other  large  object.  Repeat 
several  times. 

Scoring.     Passed  if  the  child  winks  to  the  threat. 

AGE  SIX  MONTHS 

1.  BALANCING  HKAD  AND  SITTING,  a.     Balancing  head. 
Hold  the  child  so  that  the  head  may  drop  forward,  to 
right,  to  left,  and  backward.     Note  also,  when  the  child 
is  held  in  the  vertical  position,  whether  he  keeps  the  head 
balanced. 

b.  Sitting.  Note  if  the  child  sits  up  indefinitely  when 
supported  with  a  pillow  in  the  back.  Also,  place  the 
child  on  a  chair  or  stool  without  any  support  in  the  back. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  in  "a"  the  child  keeps  the  head  bal- 
anced, that  is,  in  the  axis  of  the  body,  most  of  the  time, 
and  if  in  ''b''  he  sits  up  indefinitely  when  supported  in 
the  back,  or  five  to  ten  seconds  without  support. 

2.  TURNING  HKAD  TOWARD  SOURCE  OF  A  SOUND,     a. 
With   a  telegraphic   snapper  in  each  hand,  place  your 
hands  in  symmetrical  positions  opposite  the  child's  ears, 
about  two  feet  from  the  head.    Snap  one  of  the  snappers 
several  times  in  quick  succession.     Give  several  trials, 
alternately  for  the  right  and  left  ears. 

b.  If  the  response  is  unsatisfactory,  repeat  wfth  a 
small  hand  bell  and  change  to  other  hand,  or  have  the 
mother  or  nurse,  standing  back  and  to  one  side  of  the 
child,  speak  to  it. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  turns  head  towards  the 
sound  more  or  less  readily. 

3.  OPPOSING  THUMB  IN  GRASPING,     a.     place  an  inch 
cube  in  the  child's  right  palm.    Repeat  for  the  left. 


AGE  TWELVE  MONTHS  89 

b.  Repeat  with  pencil  pressed  lengthwise  across  the 
palm.  In  all  trials  lift  the  thumb  to  note  the  degree  of 
opposition. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  object  in  the  palm  is  clasped  with 
the  thumb  in  most  cases  as  well  as  with  the  fingers,  or 
if  the  thumb  presses  firmly  against  the  forefinger  while 
holding  the  object. 

4.  PROLONGED  HOLDING  OF  OBJECT  PLACED  IN  HAND. 
\  'lace  an  inch  cube,  ball,  bell,  rattle,  or  other  small  object 
in  child's  right  hand.    Repeat  for  the  left. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  object  is  held  considerably  longer 
than  in  the  usual  reflex  clasp. 

5.  REACHING  FOR  SEEN  OBJECTS,     a.     Dangle  a  bright 
object,  small  hand  bell  or  colored  ball,  before  the  child's 
eyes  within  his  reach.    Give  several  trials. 

b.  If  there  is  no  reaction  at  all,  ask  the  mother  or 
nurse  whether  the  child  frequently  and  successfully 
reaches  for  objects,  and  let  her  describe  several  instances. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  reaches  readily  and  success- 
fully for  the  object  in  the  test,  or  if  satisfactory  evidence 
is  given  in  "b." 

AGE  TWELVE  MONTHS 

1.  SITTING  AND  STANDING,     a.     Place  the  child  on  a 
stool  or  other  seat  without  support  to  the  back.     Note 
how  readily  or  easily  he  maintains  the  -sitting  posture. 

b.  Place  him  on  the  floor  away  from  any  support  and 
try  to  make  him  stand  up  unsupported. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  sits  up  unsupported  for  two 
or  three  minutes,  or  if  he  stands  unsupported  for  about 
five  seconds  or  more. 

2.  SPEECH,     a.     Note   throughout  the   tests   the   spon- 
taneous vocalizations  of  the  child,  their  character,  and 
number  of  syllables  that  are  combined. 

b.  Have  the  mother  or  nurse  try  to  make  the  child 
say  the  following:  "Ba,  dada,  nan,  nana,  mama,  papa, 


90  A  HANDBOOK  oi>  MKXTAL  TESTS 

man,"  or  anything  else  she  thinks  the  child  can  say. 

c.  If  the  child  makes  no  response,  ask  the  mother  or. 
nurse  to  describe  the  vocalizations  the  child  is  known  to 
make  at  times,  giving  illustrations. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  there  is  satisfactory  evidence  that  the 
child  frequently  combines  two  or  three  syllables,  or  tries 
to  repeat  syllables  or  words  spoken  to  it,  with  some 
success. 

3.  IMITATION  or  MOVEMENTS,     a.     Shake  a  rattle  two 
feet  in  front  of  the  child,  then  place  it  in  the  child's  hand, 
then  repeat  the  motion  of  your  hand. 

b.  The  child  having  the  rattle  in  its  hand,  shake  the 
child's  hand  with  the  rattle. 

c.  Repeat  "a"  and  "b"  with  a  small  hand  bell. 

d.  Have   the   mother   or  nurse  try  to   make   the   child, 
imitate  some  movement,  such  as  nodding  the  head,  shak- 
ing head,  pursing  lips,  or  anything  else  that  she  thinks 
she  can  make  the  child  do. 

e.  Ask  the  mother  or  nurse  to  describe  imitations  the 
child  makes  at  other  times. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  unmistakably  imitates  in  any 
of  the  instances,  or  if  the  mother  or  nurse  can  give  satis- 
factory evidence  that  he  does  so  more  or  less  readily  at 
other  times. 

4.  MARKING  WITH  A  PENCIL,     a.     Place  a  paper  before 
the  child,  and  about  a  four-inch  pencil  in  his  hand.    With 
your  own  pencil  make  some  marks  on  the  paper,  getting 
his  attention  to  your  marking. 

b.  Instead  of  making  marks  with  your  own  pencil, 
take  the  child's  hand,  and  with  his  pencil  make  some 
marks  by  "rubbing"  on  the  paper.  Then  release  his  hand 
and  note  if  he  continues  the  marking. 

Scoring,  Passed  if"  in  either  "a"  or  "b"  the  child  gives 
evidence  that  he  tries  to  mark  on  the  paper — looks  at  the 
paper  while  he  marks,  for  example — and  does  not  merely 
imitate  the  movements  the  examiner  makes. 


AGE  EIGHTEEN  MONTHS      .  91 

5.  RECOGNITION  OF  OBJECTS,  a.  Screen  the  table  and 
things  on  it  from  the  child's  vision  by  having  the  mother 
or.  nurse  hold  a  cardboard  or  paper  in  front  of  his  eyes, 
while  you  place  the  following  on  the  edge  of  the  table 
within  the  child's  reach :  Ball,  rattle,  bell,  block,  colored 
picture,  and  other  objects  of  interest  to  children  of  his 
age.  Remove  the  screen  and  note  if  the  child  reaches  for 
any  object.  If  he  docs,  replace  the  object  on  the  table  in 
a  different  position,  while  screened  from  his  vision.  Then 
repeat  as  before.  Give  several  trials  to  note  if  he  chooses 
the  same  object  in  most  cases. 

b.  If  a  satisfactory  response  is  not  obtained  in  "a", 
repeat  by  taking  one  object  in  each  hand,  and  bring  both 
within   his  reach.     Give   several   trials,  and  note  if  he 
shows  any  preference  in  his  choice. 

c.  Ask  the  mother  or  nurse  to  give  what  evidence  she 
can  that  the  child  discriminates  objects,  recognizes  per- 
sons or  shows  preferences  among  playthings. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  there  is  satisfactory  evidence  that  the 
child  discriminates  between  several  objects  by  showing 
preferences,  or  recognizes  several  persons  by  giving  un- 
doubtable  signs  of  recognition. 

AGE  EIGHTEEN  MONTHS 

1.  DRINKING,     a.     Try  to  make  the  child  take  a  drink 
from  a  glass  of  water. 

b.  Repeat  with  a  glass  of  milk. 

c.  Inquire  of  ;the  mother  or  nurse  whether  the  child 
ever  takes  several  swallows  in  succession  from  a  glass  of 
water  or  milk. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  drinks,  takes  several  swal- 
lows from  a  glass  in  immediate  succession,  and  without 
pausing.  Distinction  must  be  made  between  mere  suck- 
ing at  the  glass  and  the  more  complex  drinking  move- 
ments. 

2.  FEEDING  WITH  SPOON  OR  FORK.     a.     Place  a  bowl  of 


92  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

food  before  the  child,  and  a  spoon  in  his  right  hand.  If 
he  makes  no  effort  to  eat,  let  the  mother  or  nurse  take  his 
spoon  and  feed  him  a  half  spoonful  twice,  and  then  re- 
place the  spoon  in  his  hand. 

b.  If  the  child  makes  no  effort  to  eat  with  the  spoon, 
repeat  with  a  fork  and  plate  of  other  food. 

>c.  If  he  fails  to  eat  in  both  "a"  and  "b",  ask  the  mother 
or  nurse  to  what  extent  the  child  is  able  to  feed  himself. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  is  in  any  degree  successful 
in  his  effort  to  feed  himself. 

3.  SPEECH,     a.     Ask  the  mother  or  nurse  to  try  to  make 
the  child  repeat  the  following  after  her:     "Mama,  papa, 
baby,  yes,  no,  cat,  man."    Let  her  use  any  other  words  if 
she  thinks  they  might  give  better  success. 

b.  Have  the  mother  or  nurse  ask  the  child  some  ques- 
tions requiring  a  yes  or  no  answer. 

c.  If  the  child  fails  to  speak  any  word  more  or  less 
distinctly  in  "a"  or  "b",  ask  the  mother  or  nurse  what 
words  the  child  ever  uses,  if  any,  and  what  questions  he 
understands. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  unmistakably  uses  some 
words,  or  understands  a  question  without  gesture. 

4.  SPITTING    OUT    SOLIDS/  a.     Place    a   bit   of    bread 
soaked  in  slightly  weakened  vinegar  in  the  child's  mouth. 
Repeat  once  or  twice  if  the  child  does  not  remove  it. 

b.  Ask  the  parent  or  nurse  to  describe  how  the  child 
removes  from  the  mouth  things  that  are  distasteful. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  makes  some  special  move- 
ment to  remove  distasteful  objects  from  the  mouth. 
Simply  holding  the  mouth  open,  whether  the  object  drops 
out  or  not,  is  not  sufficient  for  a  pass. 

5.  RECOGNITION  OF  OBJECTS  IN  PICTURES,    a.     Show  a 
series  of  large  colored  pictures  of  things  most  familiar 
to  children  of  this  age.     Pictures  of  persons,  especially 
babies,  domestic  animals,  such  as  may  be  obtained  from 
advertising  pagefc  of  magazines,  may  serVe  this  purpose. 


AGE  Two  YEARS  .  93 

Bring  one  at  a  time  rather  suddenly  before  the  child,  and 
note  his  reactions. 

b.  If  the  pictures  fail  to  bring  any  response,  ask  the 
parent  or  nurse  to  describe  any  responses  the  child  makes 
to  pictures  at  other  times. 

Scoring  Passed  if  the  child  shows  marked  signs  of 
recognition  or  interest  by  gaze,  or  vocalization. 

AGE  TWO  YEARS 

1.  POINTING  OUT  OBJECTS  IN  PICTURES.   Show  the  tin,1: 
card   for  this  test  and  say:    "See  the  pictures.     Look! 
Show  me   the   dog."     Then,   "Show  me   the  man,"   or 
"Where  is  the — ?",  for  each  of  the  pictures.     Use  the 
second  card  in  the  same  way. 

Scoring.  Passed  it  the  child  points  out  correctly  five  of 
the  eight  pictures  on  the  two  cards. 

2.  IMITATION  o*  SIMPLE  MOVEMENTS,     a.     Raise  lx>th 
arms  straight  up  in  the  vertical,  saying,  "Put  your  arms 
up  like  this." 

b.  Clap  hands,  saying,  "Now  like  this." 

c.  Put  both  palms  on  top  of  the  head  saying,  "Now 
like  this." 

d.  Turn  the  hands  around  each  other,  describing  a 
rather  large  circle,  saying,  "Now  make  them  go  like  this." 

Scoring.  Passed  if  in  three  of  the  four  cases  the  child's 
actions  are  at  least  rough  approximations  of  the  move- 
ments made  by  the  examiner. 

.>.  OBEYING  SIMPLE  COMMANDS,  a.  Pick  up  the  ball 
on  the  table,  and  say:  "See  this  ball.  Look!",  as  you 
bounce  or  roll  it  about  on  the  table.  Then,  "Now  you 
catch  the  ball."  Then  roll  it  on  the  table  towards  the 
child.  Then,  "Throw  it  back  to  me,"  holding  your  hands 
in  readiness  to  catch  or  stop  it. 

b.  Roll  it  away  on  the  floor  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  and 
sw:  "Now  get  the  ball  and  throw  it  to  me."  As  the 


94  A  HANDBOOK  OF 

child  picks  it  up,  repeat:   "Throw  it  to  me,"  making- mo- 
tions as  if  to  catch  it. 

c.  Throw  it  to  the  child,  and  say :   "Get  the  ball  and 
put  it  back  on  the  table  here." 

d.  If  the  child  fails-- in  all  cases  to  respond,  ask  the 
parent  or  nurse  to  describe  instances  of  the  child  obey- 
ing similar  commands  at  home. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  two  satisfactory  responses  are 
obtained,  or  if  the  parent  or  nurse  gives  two  or  more  sat- 
isfactory instances.  A  response  is  satisfactory  if  the 
child  shows  that  he  comprehends  and  attempts  to  carry 
out  the  command. 

4.  COPYING  A  CIRCUS,    a.     Place  a  piece  of  paper  before 
the  child,  and  make  one  or  two  rough  circles  on  it  as  the 
child  watches.     Then  give  the  child  a  pencil  and  make 
some  more  circles,  as  you  say  to  the  child :    "You  make 
some."    Urge  and  repeat  a  number  of  times  if  necessary. 

b.  Take  the  child's  hand  with  the  pencil  in  it,  and 
make  a  few  rough  circles  for  him.  Release  his  hand  and 
say:  Now  you  make  some,"  imitating  the  motion  above 
the  paper  at  the  same  time. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  makes  some  effort,  with  suf- 
ficient success  to  show  that  he  is  trying  to  make  a  circle. 
in  either  "a"  or  "b". 

5.  REMOVAL  OP  WRAPPING  FROM  FOOD  BEFORK  EATING. 
a.     Say:     "Do  you  like  candy?"     Then   wrap  a  small 
piece  of  candy  or  of  lump  sugar  in  a  piece  of  tissue  paper, 
making  sure  that  the  child  is  seeing  you  do  so.    Hand  it 

, to  the  child  and  say:  "Here  is  a  piece  of  candy;  eat  it. 
See  if  you  like  it." 

b.  If  no  satisfactory  response  is  obtained,  take  the 
wrapped  piece  and  place  a  small  piece  in  the  child's 
mouth  so  he  will  eat  it.  Then  repeat  "a". 

Scoring.  Passed  if  in  either  "a"  or  "b"  the  child  removes 
the  wrapping  before  putting  the  candy  or  sugar  in  his 
mouth. 


Uv  YEARS  95 


AGE  THRKK  YEARS 

1.  ENUMERATION  OF  OBJECTS  IN  A  PICTURE.     Show  the 
first  picture  for.  this  test  and  say  :    "Here  is  a  picture. 
Tell  me  what  you  see  in  the  picture,"    If  necessary,  urge 
with:     "What  do  you  see  there?     Tell  me  all  you  can 
find  in  the  picture,"  and  repeat.     If  there  is  still  no  satis- 
factory response,  start  the  child  by  saying  :\  Show  me 
the  —  ",  namjng  some  prominent   object   in   the  picture. 
After  he  has  pointed  out  several  things  in  this  way,  show 
him  the  second  picture,  and  proceed  as  with  the  first. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  in  any  one  of  the  three  pictures  the 
child  enumerates  at  least  three  things  without  interven- 
ing questions  or  urging  on  the  part  of  the  examiner.  . 

2.  POINTING  OUT  PARTS  OF  Tin-  BODY.    Say: 

a.  "Show  me  your  ears. 

b.  Show  me  your  eyes. 

c.  Show  me  your  mouth. 

d.  Show  me  your  hair/' 

In  all  cases  urge  by  repeating,  or  by  changing/he  form 
of  the  command,  if  necessary  to  get  a  respogj 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  points  out  correctly  in  three 
out  of  the  four  instances. 

3.  GIVING  THE  FAMILY^N^U^,  Ask:  "What    is   your 
name?"    If  he  gives  his  first  name  only,  "John,"  for  ex- 
ample, ask:   "John  what?    John  Smith?",  or  some  other 
wrong  name.    If  he  still  does  not  give  his  last  name,  say  : 
"You  know  what  your  name  is,  don't  you?    Now  what  Is 
your  name?"    Repeat  and  urge,  if  necessary. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  he  gives  his  family  name,  or  pro- 
nounces something  recognizable  as  an  effort  to  give  the 
correct  name. 

4.  REPETITION  OF  A  SENTENCE  OF  Six  SYLLABLES.   Say  : 
"Say  'Mama/    Say  'Slipper.'  "    Then  give  the  following: 
"Say: 


:rhi 


96  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

a.  The  dog  runs  after  the  cat/ 

b.  'The  hen  is  on  the  nest.' 

c.  'I  have  a  little  dog.' " 

If  no  response  is  obtained  at  once,  repeat  the  same  word 
or  sentence  once  or  twice  with  such  variations  as :  "You 
can  say,  'The  dog  runs  after  the  cat',  can't  you?  Now 
say,  'The  dog  runs  after  the  cat.'  " 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  repeats  word  for  word^any 
one  of  the  three  sentences  after  the  first  reading.  Any 
defect  in  pronouncing  merely  is  not  counted. 

5.  NAMING  FAMILIAR  OBJECTS.    Show  the  child  in  suc- 
cession the  following  objects,  asking  each  time :    "What 
is  this?"  or,  "What  do  you  call  this?" 

a.  Common  door  key. 

b.  Closed  jacknife. 

c.  Penny. 

d.  Watch. 

e.  Ball. 

f.  'Pencil. 

Scoring.    Passed  if  four  of  the  six  are  named  correctly. 

6.  REPEATING  Two  NUMERALS.    Say :     "Listen.     You 
say  '2'.    Now  say  '3*.    Now  say : 

a.  '6-4: 

b.  '8-5.' 

c.  '3-7.'" 

Read  the  two  numerals  at  the  rate  of  one  per  second, 
in  each  case,  and  be  careful  not  to  accent  either.  Repeat 
the  two  in  the  first  trial  once  or  twice,  if  the  child  does 
not  respond  at  once  but  do  not  repeat  for  the  second  or 
third  trial. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  repeats  the  two  numerals 
after  the  first  reading  in  any  one  of  the  three  trials. 

7.  NAMING  PICTURES  FROM  MEMORY.  Place  the  pictures 
for  this  test  numbered  1,  2,  and  3  in  a  row  before  the 
child,  in  the  order  of  their  numbers  from  his  left  to  his 
right.    Paint  to  each  in  order  and  ask:  "What  is  this?", 


AGE  THREE  YEARS  97 

or,  "What  do  you  call  this?",  and  have  him  name  each. 
If  he  gives  a  wrong  name,  do  not  correct  him.  If  he  fails 
to  give  any  name  at  all  for  any  one,  name  it  for  him.  Re- 
peat this  once  for  the  three  pictures. 

Then  say:  "Now  shut  your  eyes  so  you  can't  see 
them,"  screening  them  from  his  sight  at  the  same  time 
with  a  piece  of  cardboard.  Remove  picture  1  on  his  left 
quickly,  and  say:  "Now  look  which  one  did  I  take 
away?",  removing  your  screen  at  the  same  time.  If 
there  is  no  response,  urge  with  repetition  of  the  same 
question,  or  with  "What  was  it  that  was  there?",  point- 
ing to  the  place  w7here  picture  1  was.  Give  ample  time. 

Repeat  with  pictures  4,  5,  and  6,  and  then  with  7,  8, 
and  9.  In  the  second  trial  take  away  picture  5,  and  in 
the  third  take  away  picture  9. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  recalls  correctly  in  two  of 
the  three  trials. 

8.  TRACING  A  SQUARE.  Place  the  blank  for  this  test  be- 
fore the  child  with  the  dot  at  the  top  and  say :  "I  am  go- 
ing to  see  how  well  you  can  do  this  just  the  way  I  do  it/' 
Then  trace  the  square  between  the  lines  clockwise  with 
a  pencil,  completing  the  tracing  in  about  ten  seconds, 
saying  at  the  same  time :  "Go  all  around  this  as  fast  as 
you  can  go,  but  never  go  outside.  Stay  on  the  track  all 
the  time." 

Then  give  the  child  another  blank  and  a  pencil  and  say  : 
"Now  see  how  well  you  can  do  that.  Begin  at  the  dot." 
Hold  the  paper  down  at  one  corner,  and  do  not  let  him 
turn  it  around  as  he  completes  a  side.  Caution  him  with : 
"Don't  go  outside.  Stay  on  the  track,"  for  the  first  and 
second  time  he  crosses  the  line.  After  this  simply  urge 
him  to  go  on,  if  he  stops. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  traces  the  square  without 
crossing  the  line  more  than  four  times.  If  the  pencil 
mark  shows  at  all  outside  the  line  it  is  counted  as  out. 


98  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAT.,  TESTS 

Breaks  in  the  line  traced,  or  removing  of  the  pencil  do 
not  count  in  the  scoring. 

AGE  FOUR  YEARS 

1.  GIVING  SEX.     Ask  :    "Are  you  a  little  girl  or  a  little 
boy"?,  in  case  of  a  girl,  and,   "Are  you  a  little  boy  or  a 
little  girl?",  in  case  of  a  boy.    If  there  is  no  satisfactory 
response,  ask:    "Are  you  a  little  boy?",  in  case  of  a  girl, 
and,  "Are  you  a  little  girl?",  in  case  of  a  boy. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  any  response  is  given  indicating  that 
tlie  child  knows  his  sex. 

2.  REPETITION  OF  THREE  NUMERALS.     Say:    "You  say 
'4-8'".    Then,  "Now  say: 

a.  '2-6-4.' 

b.  '7-5-3.' 

c.  '8-1-9.' " 

Read  the  numerals  in  each  of  the  three  trials  at  the 
rate  of  three  numerals  per  two  seconds,  and  without 
accent  on  any  one.  Make  sure  that  you  have  the  child's 
attention  for  each  trial. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  repeats  correctly  in  one  out 
of  the  three  trials.  Changing  the  order  is  not  counted 
as  an  error. 

3.  COMPARISON  OF  Two  LINES.     Place  the  card  for  this 
test  before  the  child  and  say:    "See  the  two  sticks;  one 
little  one  and  one  big  one.    Show  me  the  big  one."    Give 
three  trials,  if  all  three  responses  are  correct,  or  six  trials 
if  one  of  the  first  three  is  wrong.     Have  the  longer  line 
alternately  at  the  top,  bottom,  right,  left,  etc.,  repeating 
for  each  trial,  "Show  me  the  big  one,"  or,  "Which  is  the 
big  one?" 

Scoring.  Passed  if  all  the  responses  for  the  first  three 
trials  are  correct,  or  if  five  out  of  the  six  are  correct. 

4.  DISCRIMINATION   OF   FORMS.     Place  the  large  card 
with  the  ten  forms  for  this  test  before  the  child,  and 
place  the  small  card  with  the  circle  of  the  duplicate  set 


AGE  FOUR  YEARS  99 

of  forms  on  the  small  cross  in  the  middle  of  the  bottom 
row  of  forms  on  the  large  card.  Then  say :  "Show  me 
one  like  this,"  passing  your  finger  around  the  circle  at 
the  same  time,  and  then  say  :  "Find  one  like  this  among 
the  others,"  passing  your  hand  across  the  whole  group. 
Use  the  square  next,  and  the  triangle  next,  and  the  rest 
in  any  order"  Correct  the  first  error  made  by  the  child 
saying:  "No,  find  one  just  like  this  one,"  passing  your 
finger  around  the  form  again.  Make  no  comment  on  the 
second  or  following  errors,  but  encourage  with  a  "That's 
good,"  or  similar  remark  several  times  when  the  choice 
is  correct. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  seven  out  of  the  ten  are  chosen  cor- 
rectly. The  first  error  is  counted,  even  though  the  child 
corrects  it  after  he  is  told  that  it  is  Wrong. 

5.  TRACING  IRREGULAR  FORM.  Place  the  blank  for  this 
test  before  the  child,  with  the  dot  at  the  top,  and  say: 
"I  am  going  to  see  how  well  you  can  do  this  just  the  way 
I  do  it."  Then  trace  the  form  clockwise  with  a  pencil, 
completing  the  tracing  in  about  fifteen  seconds,  saying 
at  the  same  time:  "Go  all  around  this  as  fast  as  you  can 
go,  but  do  no*,  go  outside.  Stay  on  the  track  all  the 
time." 

Then  give  the  child  another  blank  and  a  pencil  and  say : 
"Now  see  how  well  you  can  do  that.  Begin  here  at  the 
dot."  Hold  the  paper  down  at  the  corner  and  do  not  let 
him  turn  it  around  as  he  completes  a  side.  Caution  him 
with:  "Don't  go  outside.  Stay  on  the  track,"  for  the 
first  and  second  time  he  crosses  the  line.  After  this,  sim- 
ply urge  him  to  go  on,  if  he  stops. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  traces  the  form  without 
crossing  the  line  more  than  four  times.  If  the  pencil 
mark  shows  at  all  outside  the  line  it  is  counted  as  out. 
Breaks  in  the  line  traced,  or  removing  the  pencil,  do  not 
count  in  the  scoring'. 


100  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

6.  RECOGNITION  OF  FORMS.     Place  the  large  card  with 
the  sixteen  forms  for  this  test    face    down    before    the 
child.     Five  of  these  forms  are  duplicated  on  five  small 
cards.    Take  the  last  card  of  this  duplicate  set,  and  show 
it  to  the  child  for  a  second  or  less  in  inverted  position, 
and  say:    "I  am  going  to  show  you  this  and  see  if  you 
can  find  one  like  it  among  these,"  as  you  turn  the  large 
card    with    the    sixteen    forms    face    up    for    about    five 
seconds. 

Then  show  card  1  of  the  duplicate  set  for  ten  seconds, 
saying:  "Npw  look  at  this."  Watch  the  child's  eyes  and 
urge  him  with  a  "Look,  look!"  if  his  eyes  wander. 

After  ten  seconds  remove  the  small  card  and  turn  the 
large  card  face  up  again  quickly,  saying:  "Now  show  me 
one  just  like  it  among  these."  Urge  with,  "Look  all  over. 
Find  it,"  if  necessary. 

Turn  the  large  card  with  the  sixteen  forms  face  down 
again  at  once  after  he  makes  a  choice.  Repeat  with  cards 
2,  3,  4  and  5. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  two  out  of  the  five  are  chosen  cor- 
rectly. 

7.  COMPREHENSION.     Say:    "Listen."    Then: 

ii.     "What  must  you  do  when  you  are  sleepy?" 

b.  "What  must  you  do  when  you  are  cold?" 

c.  "What  must  you  do  when  you  are  hungry?" 
Repeat  the  questions   if  necessary,   and  allow   about 

twenty  seconds  for  a  response. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  there  are  two  correct  responses.  A 
response  is  regarded  as  satisfactory  if  not  obviously  ab- 
surd or  irrelevant.  Silence  counts  for  a  failure. 

8.  NAMING  PICTURES  FROM  MEMORY.  Place  the  pictures 
for  this  test  numbered  1,2,  3  and  4  in  a  row  before  the 
child,  in  the  order  of  their  numbers  from  the  child's  left 
to  his  right.    Point  to  each  in  order  and  ask :    "What  is 
this?"  or,  "What  do  you  call  this?"  and  have  the  child 


AGE  FIVE  YEARS  101 

name  each.  If  he  gives  a  wrong  name  do  not  correct 
him.  If  he  fails  to  give  any  name  at  all,  name  it  for  him. 
Repeat  this  once  for  the  four  pictures. 

Then  say:  "Now,  shut  your  eyes  so  you  can't  see 
them,"  screening  them  from  his  sight  at  the  same  time 
with  a  piece  of  cardboard.  Remove  picture  2  quickly, 
and  say:  "Now  look,  which  one  did  I  take  away?"  re- 
moving the  screen  at  the  same  time.  If  there  is  no  re- 
sponse, urge  with  repetition  of  the  question  and  with 
"What  was  it  that  was  there?"  pointing  to  the  place 
where  picture  2  was.  Repeat  with  picture  5,  6,  7  and  8, 
and  again  with  9,  10,  11  and  12.  In  the  second  trial  take 
away  picture  7  and  in  the  third  trial  take  away  picture  12. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  recalls  correctly  in  two  out 
of  the  three  trials. 

AGE  FIVE  YEARS 

1.  COUNTING  FOUR  PENNIES.     Place  four  pennies  (or 
four  of  the  weights  used  in  other  tests)  before  the  child 
and  say :  "See  these  pennies  (or  blocks,  or  boxes,  as  the 
ease  may  be).  Count  them  and  tell  me  how  many  there 
are.   Count  them  with  your  finger."  Unless  it  is  evident 
that  he  has  really  counted  them  and  not  given  the  num- 
ber accidentally  correct,  insist  on  his  counting  them  with 
his  finger.     After  he  has  made  the  count,  ask :    "How 
many  are  there?" 

Scoring.  Passed  if  he  counts  them  correctly,  and  also 
answers  "Four"  to  the  last  question. 

2.  COPYING  A  SQUARE.    Place  the  card  with  the  square 
for  this  test  before  the  child.     Give  him  a  pen  with  ink 
and  paper,  and  say :  "See  how  nicely  you  can  make  one 
just  like  this,"  pointing  to  the  square.    After  he  has  com- 
pleted one,  say :  "That  is  fine.   Now  make  another  one." 
Repeat  for  a  third  trial. 

Children  with  marked  motor  disturbance  interfering 
with  their  drawing  may  be  allowed  to  use  a  pencil  in- 


102  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

stead  of  a  pen.  Others  who  persistently  hold  the  pen  in 
such  a  position  that  it  will  not  write  and  give  up  the 
task  because  of  this,  may  be  assisted  by  showing  them 
once  how  to  hold  the  pen,  but  no  further  aid  should  be 
given.  Most  children  who  fail  with  a  pen  fail  also  when 
a  pencil  is  substituted. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  two  of  the  squares  are  as  good  as 
samples  1,  2,  3  of  the  sample  card  for  this  test.  Failed 
if  they  are  no  better  than  samples  5,  6,  7. 

3.  COMPARISON  OF  WEIGHTS.     Take  the  two  weights  for 
this  test,  the  lightest  and  the  second  heaviest  of  the  five 
used  in  IX,  2,  and  say:     "Here  are  two  weights,  one 
heavy  and  one  light  one.   Lift  them  like  this  (illustrate 
by  lifting  the  two  successively  between  thumb  and  fore- 
finger as  if  to  discriminate)  and  give  me  the  heavy  one." 
Then  place  them  before  the  child,  having  him  take  them 
in  the  same  way,  and  repeat :    "Give  me  the  heavy  one." 
If  he  gives  both,  or  the  wrong  one,  say :  "No,  give  me 
the  heavy  one."    Give  six  trials,  with  the  heavy  weight 
Alternately  right,  left,  nearer,  farther,  etc.,  but  do  not 
correct  him  again  after  the  first  trial.    Simply  repeat  for 
each  trial :    "Give  me  the  heavy  one." 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  heavy  weight  is  chosen  four  times 
out  of  the  six  trials. 

4.  MAKING  RECTANGLE  WITH  Two  TRIANGLES.    Place 
the  small   rectangular  card   for  this  test  before  the  child, 
and  the  two  triangular   cards  nearer  him   in   such  a  way 
that  the  longer  side  (not  the  hypotenuse)   of  one  triangle 
will  lie  along  the  longer  side  of  the  other  triangle,  sepa- 
rated about  an   inch,  and   faced  up  so  that  the   triangles 
can  be  put  together    into    a    rectangle    without    having  to 
turn  over  one  of  them.     Place  your  thumb  and  forefinger 
of  one  hand  on  the  two  triangles  and  say:    "Put  these 
two  pieces  together  (moving  their  longer  sides  together 
and  apart  once  or  twice)  so  they  will  make  one  lik«  this* 


(pointing  to  the  rectangular  card).  Give  three  trials, 
returning-  the  cards  to  their  original  positions  each  time, 
and  saying:  "Try  it  again.  Put  them  together  so  they 
will  make  one  like  this,"  or  if  the  child  has  failed,  say : 
"No,  put  them  together  so  they  will  make  one  like  this." 
Leaving  thejn  in  any  wrong  position  for  half  a  minute 
counts  as  one  trial. 

Scoring.    Passed  if  he  succeeds  twice  in  the  three  trials. 

5.  REPETITION  OF  A  SENTENCE  OF  TEN  WORDS.    Say: 
"You  say  now  what  I  read  to  you  just  the  way  I  read  it. 
Listen-"    Then  give  the  following: 

a.  "His  name  is  John.  He  is  a  very  good  boy." 

b.  "We  will  have  a  great  time  at  the  big  picnic." 

c.  "When  the  train  passes  you  will  hear  the  whistle 
blow." 

If  he  remains  silent  for  the  first  trial  repeat  the  same 
sentence,  adding  at  once,  "Now,  what  did  I  say?"  If  he 
repeats  it  imperfectly  apparently  because  of  carelessness, 
say :  "Say  it  just  as  I  say  it.  Listen."  Then  give  the 
second  trial  on  the  same  sentence.  Then  give  the  second 
and  third  sentences,  with  only  one  reading  each. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  one  of  the  three  sentences  is  repeated 
without  error  after  one  reading  only.  Imperfections  in 
pronunciation  are  not  counted  as  errors. 

6.  DEFINITION  ACCORDING  TO  USE  OF  OBJECT.     Ask: 
"Can  you  tell  me  what  a  fork  is?"    Then  give  the  fol- 
lowing : 

a.  '"What  is  a  fork?" 

b.  "What  is  a  table?" 

c.  "What  is  a  chair?" 

d.  "What  is  a  horse?" 

e.  "What  is  a  pencil?" 

If  the  child  does  not  respond  readily  for  the  first  one, 
say:  "You  know  what  a  fork  is,  don't  you?"  or,  "Yes, 


104  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

you  know  what  a  fork  is.   You  see  one  every  day  at  the 
table.   Now,  what  is  a  fork?" 

Scoring.  Passed  if  four  out  of  the  five  are  defined  in 
terms  of  use,  or  better. 

7.  TAPPING  BLOCKS  IN  IRREGULAR  ORDER.    Place  four 
of  the  weights  used  in  test  IX,  2  in  a  horizontal  row 
before  the  child,  about  two  inches  apart.     Say :   "Watch 
me  carefully,  and  then  do  just  as  I  do."     Then  tap  the 
weights  with  your  forefinger  in  the  following  order,  from 
the  child's  left  to  his  right,  and  at  the  rate  of  one  tap  per 
second : 

a.  1—2—4. 

b.  1—3—4, 

c.  2—3—4. 

After  he  is  shown  each,  say :  "Now,  you  do  that,"  and, 
"Now,  watch  again,"  for  the  second  and  third  trial.  Make 
sure  that  you  have  his  attention  while  you  tap. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  reproduces  the  series  with- 
out error  in  one  out  of  the  three  trials. 

8.  NAMING  THE  PRIMARY  COLORS.     Show  the  child  the 
four  color  cards  for  this  test  in  the  order,  red,  yellow, 
blue,  green  and  ask  for  each:    "What  color  is  that?"  or 
"What  do  you  call  that?" 

Scoring.     Passed  if  all  four  colors  are  named  correctly. 

AGE  SIX  YEARS. 
1.    DISTINCTION  BETWEEN  RIGHT  AND  LEFT.    Say: 

a.  "Raise  your  right  hand." 

b.  "Show  me  your  left  ear." 

c.  "Show  me  your  right  eye." 

Speak  very  slowly,  accent  "Right"  and  "Left,"  and 
allow  plenty  of  time  so  as  to  avoid  a  tendency  to  con- 
fusion. If  only  one  error  is  made,  repeat,  this  time  in  the 
order,  left  hand,  right  ear,  left  eye.  If  the  child  changes 
his  response,  the  first  response  is  not  counted,  no  matter 
whether  it  was  correct  or  wrong.  Care  must  be  taken 


AGE  Six  YEARS  105 

not  to  suggest  such  a  change  in  any  way,  as  by  waiting 
too  long  before  passing  to  the  next. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  first  three  responses  are  correct, 
or  if  five  out  of  the  six  are  correct. 

2.  AESTHETIC  COMPARISON.     Show  the  cards  for  this 
test  in  the  order  indicated,  asking  each  time :   "Which  is 
the  prettier  of  these  two?"  or,  "Which  one  do  you  like 
best?",  if  there  is  no  response  to  the  first  question.     If 
only  one  error  is  made  for  the  three  cards  the  first  time, 
repeat  in  the  same  order. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  first  three  responses  are  cor- 
rect, or  if  five  out  of  the  six  are  correct. 

3.  DISTINCTION  BETWEEN  MORNING  AND  AFTERNOON. 
Ask:    "Is  it  morning  or  afternoon?",  if  it  is  in  the  morn- 
ing, and,  "Is  it  afternoon  or  morning?",  if  it  is  in  the  after- 
noon. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  correct  answer  is  given  more  or 
less  promptly. 

4.  RECOGNITION  OF  MUTILATION  IN  PICTURES.     Show 
the  pictures  for  this  test  in  their  order,  saying  for  the 
first  one:  "See  this  picture.  What  is  gone  in  that  face?" 
For  the  remainder  say  simply:   "What  is  gone  there?" 

If  the  child  does  not  at  once  understand  for  the  first 
picture,  or  gives  a  wrong  reply,  repeat  the  question  in 
varied  form.  If  necessary,  proceed  as  follows.  Say: 
"You  see  the  eyes.  Look,  the  eyes  are  there.  You  see 
the  nose.  Yes,  the.  nose  is  there ;  and,  look,  the  chin  is 
there.  Now,  what  is  gone?"  Point  to  each  part  as  you 
proceed.  If  he  still  fails  to  respond  correctly,  add :  "Look, 
the  mouth  is  gone,  is  it  not?  Yes,  the  mouth  is  gone." 
Do  this  only  for  the  first  picture.  For  the  others  ask  only 
the  one  question  given. 

Scoring,  Passed  if  the  responses  are  correct  for  three 
out  of  the  four  pictures.  Any  response  is  regarded  as 


106  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MEWTAI, 

correct  if  it  shows  clearly  that  he  recognizes  what  part 
is  gone. 

5.  EXECUTION  OF  THREE  SIMULTANEOUS  COMMANDS. 
Having  arranged  things  beforehand,  say:  "You  see  that 
chair  tnere.  Go  put  that  chair  over  there  against  the  wall. 
Then  put  this  key  (or  other  object)  on  that  chair.  Then 
close  (or  open)  the  door.  First  the  chair  against  the  wall. 
Then  the  key  on  the  chair.  Then  close  the  door.  Go 
ahead" 

If  the  child  starts  at  once  to  do  the  first  thing  before 
he  is  told  about  the  others,  as  he  very  often  does,  add : 
"Now,  wait,  wait,*'  and  repeat  from  the  start.  The  three 
things  to  be  done  may  be  varied,  if  circumstances  require 
it,  but  great  care  must  be  taken  to  have  them  very  simi- 
lar, and  to  give  the  directions  in  a  very  similar  manner. 

If  the  child  stops  at  any  point,  looks  at  the  examiner 
in  an  inquiring  manner,  or  as  if  for  approval,  he  should 
simply  be  urged  to  "Go  on." 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  does  the  three  things,  in  any 
order,  without  further  help  or  suggestion  from  the 
examiner. 

6.  COUNTING  IRREGULAR  SERIES  OF  FOUR  TO  Six  TAPS. 
Say :  "I  am  going  to  tap  on  the  table  and  see  if  you  can 
count  the  number  of  taps.  You  must  count  to  yourself 
and  give  me  the  number  when  I  ask  you."  Then  tap  the 
first  series  given  for  illustration,  one  tap  for  each  dot, 
while  carefully  screening  the  movements  of  your  hand 
and  arm  from  the  child's  sight  with  a  large  cardboard. 

Then  say:  "Now,  sometimes  I  will  stop  tapping  and 
then  begin  again.  Don't  let  that  fool  you.  You  count 
only  those  you  hear.  Now,  listen ;  begin  with  one  again/' 
Then  tap  the  remaining  series  in  order  at  the  rate  of 
one  square  per  second,  tapping  once  for  each  dot,  and 
pausing  a  second  for  each  blank  square.  Tap  ra'ther 


AGE  Six  YEARS 


107 


loudly  with  the  blunt  end  of  a  pencil,  or  with  the  edge  of 


a  com. 


Illustration 

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ed  correctly.    The  illustration  series  is  not  counted. 

7,  FOLDING  A  SQUARE  OF  PAPER  THREE  TIMES.  Take  a 
six-inch  square  of  paper  prepared  for  this  test,  and  say : 
"I  am  going  to  fold  this  pie^e  of  paper  and  see  if  you  can 
fold  this  other  one  (showing  him  a  second  piece)  just  like 
it  Now,  watch." 

a.  Then,  facing  the  child,  fold  your  lower  left  corner 
of  the  square  onto  the  upper  right  corner,  making  a  tri- 
angle.   Then  fold  the  lower  corner  onto  the  upper  right 
corner.    Then  fold  the  corner  on  the  left  onto  the  upper 
right  corner,  making  a  square. 

Then  say :  "Now,  you  make  this  one  just  like  it,"  giv- 
ing him  the  second  piece.  Put  one  of  the  weights  used  in 
test  IX,  2  on  yo-r  folded  piece  to  hold  down  the  edges 
while  the  child  is  folding. 

b.  Say:     "Now,  we  will  try  another.   Watch  again." 
Fold  your  lower  left  corner  onto  the  upper  right  corner. 
Then  fold  the  upper  right  corner  of  the  upper  sheet  only 
back  onto  the  center  of  the  opposite  side.    Then  fold  the 
corner  on  the  left  onto  the  lower  corner  making  a  right- 
angled  triangle. 


108  A  HANDBOOK  OP  MENTAL  TESTS 

Give  the  child  the  second  piece  of  paper  and  say : 
"Now,  make  this  one  just  like  it." 

In  both  "a"  and  "b"  do  the  folding  in  about  twenty 
seconds,  being  careful  not  to  hide  the  operation  with  your 
hands.  Watch  the  child,  and  if  his  attention  wanders,  say, 
"Watch  me,  watch  me  all  the  time." 

Record  the  time  it  takes  the  child  to  do  the  folding  and 
the  number  of  errors  he  makes  for  each  trial.  If  he  gives 
up  before  he  has  completed  three  folds  urge  him  to  gc  .m 
until  he  has  tried  for  a  total  of  80  seconds.  Count  the 
errors  always  as  three  minus  the  number  of  folds  he  has 
made  correctly,  irrespective  of  the  order  of  the  foldings, 
at  the  end  of  the  80  seconds  as  the  maximum  time  to  be 
allowed,  excepting  that  any  extra  folds  made  after  the 
three  correct  ones  are  counted  as  errors. 

Scoring.  Use  the  average  time  (T)  for  the  two  trials, 
and  the  total  number  of  errors  for  the  two  trials  (E).  The 
test  is  then  passed  if  —  +  E  =  1.5,  or  less. 

8.  TAPPING  BLOCKS  IN  IRREGULAR  ORDER.  Place  four 
of  the  weights  used  in  test  IX,  2  in  a  horizontal  row  be- 
fore the  child,  about  two  inches  apart.  Say  :  "Watch  me 
carefully,  and  then  do  just  as  I  do."  Then  tap  the  weights 
with  your  forefinger  in  the  following  order,  from  the 
child's  left  to  his  right,  and  at  the  rate  of  one  -tap  per 
second. 

a.  1—3—2—4. 

b.  1-4—3—2. 

c.  1—4—2—3. 

After  tapping  each  series,  say:  "Now,  you  do  that." 
Before  tapping  the  second  and  third  series,  say:  "Now, 
watch  aeain."  Make  sure  that  you  have  the  child's  atten- 
tion while  you  tap. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  reproduces  the  series  with- 
out error  in  two  out  of  the  three  trials. 


109 

AGE  SEVEN  YEARS. 

1.  DESCRIPTION  OF  PICTURES.     Show  the  first  picture 
for  this  test  and  say :  "Look  at  that  picture.  Tell  me  what 
that  picture  is  about."    If  there  is  no  response,  or  only 
enumeration,  change  the  question  to :    "What  is  that  a 
picture  of?"    If  there  is  still  no  satisfactory  response,  say  : 
"Tell  me  what  you  see  in  the  picture,"  but  do  this  only 
for  the  first  one.    Use  all  three  pictures  unless  satisfac- 
tory responses  are  obtained  for  the  first  two. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  responses  for  any  two  of  the 
pictures  are  better  than  mere  enumeration  of  things  in 
the  picture. 

2.  NAMING  THE  FIRST  FOUR  COINS.     Show  the  child  the 
coins  in  the  following  order: 

a.  Nickel. 

b.  Quarter. 

c.  Dime. 

d.  Penny. 

Ask  for  each:  "How  much  is  this?"  If  only  one  coin 
is  named  wrongly,  repeat  the  series. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  all  four  coins  are  named  correctly  in 
the  first  or  second  trial. 

3.  TELLING  THE  NUMBER  OF  FINGERS.     Ask  the  follow- 
ing: 

a.  "How  many  ringers  on  your  right  hand?" 

b.  "How  many  fingers  on  your  left  hand?" 

c.  "How  many  in  all  on  the  two  hands?" 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  three  responses  are  all  given  with- 
out much  hesitation  or  any  counting,  and  are  "Five,  Five, 
Ten,  or  Four,  Four,  Eight." 

4.  REPETITION  or  FIVE  NUMERALS.     Say; 

"I  am  going  to  read  you  some  numbers.  Now,  listen 
very  carefully  and  see  if  you  can  say  them  when  I  get 
through  just  the  way  I  read  them.  Listen/'  Then  give 
the  following,  reading  them  very  distinctly  at  the  rate  of 


110  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

five  per  three  seconds,  being  very  careful  to  avoid  all 
accents  and  rhythm: 


c.     "2— 8—6— 1—9." 

For  the  second  and  third  trial  say  simply :  "Now,  this 
one.  Listen."  Frequently  verify  your  rate  of  giving  the 
numerals  with  a  watch. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  repeats  one  of  the  three 
series  without  error.  Changing  the  order  of  the  numer- 
als, simply,  is  not  counted  an  error. 

5.  COMPARING  Two  OBJECTS  FROM  MEMORY.    Ask  the 
following  in  order:   "What  is  the  difference  between: 

a.  A  fly  and  a  butterfly? 

b.  Wood  and  glass? 

c.  A  stone  and  an  egg?" 

If  the  child  does  not  at  once  understand  what  is  wanted, 
say :  "You  have  seen  butterflies.  You  know  what  a  but- 
terfly is.  And  you  know  flies.  Are  they  alike?  Why  are 
they  not  alike?*'  For  the  last  two  trials  simply  urge  by 
repeating  the  original  question  once  or  twice,  if  necessary. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  points  out  some  real  differ- 
ence in  two  out  of  the  three  trials. 

6.  GIVING  WORD  OPPOSITE?.     Say:     "I   am   going   to 
give  you  a  word  and  see  how  quickly  you  can  think  of 
another  word  that  means  just  the  opposite.  For  instance, 
if  I  say  'Full'  you  must  say  'Empty.'  If  I  say  Toor'  you 
nv-st  say  'Rich/   If  I  say  'Black'  you  must  say  'White/ 
and  so  on,  as  fast  as  you  can  go.   Now,  what  do  you  say 
when    I    say    'Full1?"     Repeat    same    for    "Poor"    and 
"Black,"  giving  him  the  correct  word  again  if  he  fails. 
Then  give  the  list  of  ten  words,  giving  him  the  correct 
word  for  the  first  three  if  he  fails. 

For  the  first  three  words  of  the  test  repeat  the  question 
each  time,  "What  do  you  say  when  I  say  ~- -?"  For  the 


AGE  SEVEN  YEARS  111 

remainder  simply  give  the  word  without  the  question,  or 
say :  "Now  this  one,  listen,"  for  two  or  three  words  more, 
if  necessary. 

a.  "Cold/'-T  f.     "Slow."-f- 

b.  "Little."-^  g.     "Thick."  - 

c.  "Bad/'H     h.     "Soft." 

d.  "Up."  HT    i.     "Dry."   " 

e.  "Short."      j.     "In." 

Take  special  care  to  pronounce  each  word  very  dis- 
tinctly, and  allow  ample  time  between  trials  (the  time 
the  examiner  needs  to  record  for  each  word  is  about  cor- 
rect). The  test  can  be  given  fairly  accurately  with  an 
ordinary  watch,  but  a  stop-watch  is  desirable.  Record 
the  "association  time"  for  each  word  in  the  nearest  whole 
number  of  seconds.  Count  it  an  error  if  the  word  given 
by  the  child  is  not  a  true  opposite  in  meaning,  or  if  he 
takes  more  than  ten  seconds.  At  the  end  of  ten  seconds 
for  any  word,  give  the  child  the  correct  word,  as  for  ex- 
ample, "  'Warm/  when  I  say  'Gold/  you  must  say 
'Warm/  " 

Scoring.  Use  the  average  time  (T)  for  the  ten  words, 
not  counting  those  that  took  more  than  ten  seconds  and 
for  which  an  error  was  recorded,  and  the  total  number 
of  erros  (E).  The  test  is  then  passed  if  T  +  E  =  5, 
or  less. 

7.  REPEATING  THREE  NUMERALS  BACKWARDS.  Say: 
"I  am  going  to  read  you  some  numbers,  and  when  I  am 
through  I  want  you  to  say  them  backwards.  If  I  should 
say  '1 — 2 — 3/  you  must  say  '3 — 2 — I/  Now,  listen  care- 
fully, so  you  will  be  able  to  say  them  backwards."  Ex- 
plain further  after  the  first  of  the  following  three  trials,  if 
necessary,  but  no  more.  Read  the  numerals  at  the  rate 
of  one  per  second. 


l\2.  A 

a.  "2—8—3." 

b.  "4—  1— 7." 

c.  "5—9—6." 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  numerals  are  repeated  backwards 
conectly  in  one  out  of  the  three  trials. 

8.  COPYING  A  DIAMOND.  Place  the  card  for  this  test 
before  the  child,  give  him  a  pen  with  ink  and  a  piece  of 
paper,  and  say  :  "See  how  nicely  you  can  draw  a  diamond 
just  like  this  one."  Give  three  trials,  unless  the  first  two 
are  satisfactory.  Urge  with  praise  and  other  appropriate 
comments,  if  necessary.  If  the  child  is  unusually  nerv- 
ous or  has  some  other  serious  motor  disturbance,  substi- 
tute a  pencil  for  the  pen  and  ink. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  in  two  out  of  the  three  trials  the 
child's  drawings  are  as  good  or  better  than  samples  1,  2, 
'3  given  on  the  sample  card  for  this  test.  Samples  4,  5,  6 
are  unsatisfactory. 

AGE  EIGHT  YEARS 

1.  COUNTING  THE  VALUE  OF  STAMPS.     Place  the  card 
for  this  test  before  the  child  and  say:   "How  much  will 
it  cost  to  buy  all  these . "  If  the  correct  answer  is  not  given 
after  ample  time,  ask:    "How  much  is  one  of  the  green 
ones  worth?"   Then,  "How  much  is  one  of  the  red  ones 
worth?"    Give  him  the  correct  values  if  he  does  not  know. 
Then  ask :  "Now,  how  much  are  they  worth  altogether?" 
Give  no  further  aid. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  he  gives  the  correct  answer  after  the 
first  or  last  question. 

2.  SIZE  OF  VOCABULARY.    Say:    "I   want   to   find   out 
how  many  words  you  know.    Listen,  and  when  I  say  a 
word  you  tell  me  what  it  means."  Then  give  as  many  of 
the  following  list  as  is  necessary.    They  are  roughly  ar- 
ranged in  the  order  of  difficulty: 


AGE  EIGHT 


113 


1.  Orange. 

14.  Copper. 

26.  Noticeable. 

39.  Crunch. 

2.  Bonfire. 

15.  Health. 

27.  Muzzle. 

40.  Juggler. 

3.  Roar. 

16.  Curse. 

28.  Quake. 

41.  Majesty. 

4.  Gown. 

17.  Guitar. 

29.  Civil. 

42.  Brunette. 

5.  Tap. 

18.  Mellow. 

30.  Treasury. 

43.  Snip. 

6.  Scorch. 

19.  Pork. 

31.  Reception. 

44.  Apish. 

7.  Puddle. 

20.  Impolite. 

32.  Ramble. 

45.  Sportive. 

8.  Envelope. 

21.  Plumbing. 

33.  Skill. 

46.  Hysterics. 

9.  Straw. 

22.  Outward. 

34.  Misuse. 

47.  Mars. 

10.  Rule. 

23.  Lecture.. 

35.  Insure. 

48.  Repose. 

11.  Haste. 

24.  Dungeon. 

36.  Stave. 

49.  Shrewd. 

12.  Afloat. 

25.  Southern, 

37.  Regard. 

50.  Forfeit. 

13.  Eyelash. 

38.  Nerve. 

Question  as  follows:  "What  is  an  orange?"  or, 
"Orange,  what  is  an  orange?"  and  "Roar,  what  does  roar 
mean?"  If  the  child  hesitates,  say:  "You  know  what  a 

is.  You  have  seen  a .  Now  what  is  a ?"  If 

the  response  does  not  indicate  whether  he  knows  the 
meaning,  say:  "I  don't  understand.  Explain  what  you 
mean."  Encourage  frequently,  if  he  shows  hesitation  in 
responding. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  responses  for  twenty  of  the  words 
in  the  list  show  that  he  knows  the  meaning.  The  form 
of  the  defini  ion  is  not  considered.  An  illustration  or  re- 
mark about  the  word  which  shows  that  he  knows  the 
meaning  is  satisfactory. 

3.  COUNTING  BACKWARDS  FROM  TWENTY  TO  ONE.  Say : 
"Let  me  see  how  well  you  can  count  backwards  from 
twenty  to  one.  You  begin  with  twenty  and  count  back 
to  one."  If  he  hesitates,  say :  "Count  like  this :  'Twenty, 
nineteen,  eighteen/  and  so  on.  Now  begin,  'Twenty' ." 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  count  is  made  within  twenty 
seconds  and  with  not  more  than  one  error.  Errors  cor- 
rected by  the  child  are  not  counted.  Thirty  seconds  are 
allowed  if  the  counting  is  done  with  evidence  of  care  and 
effort  and  without  any  unconnected  errors. 


114  A  HANDBQOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

4.  COMPREHENSION.    Give    the    child   a    sheet    of    the 
blank  squares  and  a  pencil.  Point  with  your  pencil  to  one 
and  say:    "See  this  square.    This  is  the  center  of  the 
square.  What  is  it?  This  is  the  upper  right  corner  of  the 
square.   What  is  it?"   Have  him  repeat,  and  correct  him 
if  he  repeats  wrongly.    Using  the  same   square,   proceed 
in  the  same  way  for  the  lower  left  corner;  the  middle  of 
the  left  side,  the  middle  of  the  lower  side,  and  again  for 
the  center.    Then  give  the  following: 

"Draw  a  straight  line  from  the  center  of  the  square 
(pointing  to  the  center  with  your  pencil)  to : 

a.  The  upper  left  corner. 

b.  The  middle  of  the  left  side. 

c.  The  lower  right  corner. 

d.  The  middle  of  the  upper  side. 

e.  The  upper  right  corner. 

f.  The  middle  of  the  lower  side. 

Speak  slowly,  and  repeat  the  last  part  of  each  (begin- 
ning with  "from  the  center  to ,"  etc.)  once.  Point 

out  the  center  of  the  square  again  for  "a"  and  "b"  if 
necessary,  and  draw  the  line  correctly  for  him,  with  ex- 
planation, for  the  first  two  trials,  if  he  fails.  Give  no 
further  help  in  following  trials,  except  to  urge  by  repeat- 
ing the  last  part  of  each  a  second  or  third  time. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  he  draws  the  line  correctly  in  four 
out  of  the  six  trials. 

5.  GIVING  WORD  OPPOSITES.     Say:     "I  am  going  to 
give  you  a  word  and  see  how  quickly  you  can  think  of 
another  word  that  means  just  the  opposite.  For  instance, 
if  I  say  'Full/  you  must  say  'Empty/    If  I  say  'Poor/  you 
must  say  'Rich/   If  I  say  'Black/  you  must  say  'White/ 
and  so  on,  as  fast  as  you  can  go.  Now.  what  do  you  say 
when   I   say  'Full'?"     Repeat    same    for  "Poor"    and 
"Black,"  giving  him  the  correct  word  if  he  fails.    Then 


Bwawf  YSAAB  US. 

give  him  the  list  of  ten  words,  giving  him  the  correct 
word  for  the  first  three  if  he  fails,  for  the  first  three 
repeat  the  question  each  time,  "What  do  you  say  when  I 

say ?"     For    the    remainder    simply    give    the    word 

without  question,  or  say :  "Now,  this  one,  listen,"  for  two 
or  three  more,  if  necessary. 


a.     Cold. 

f.     Slow. 

b.     Little. 
c.     Bad. 

g.     Thick. 
h.    Soft. 

d.    Up. 
e.     Short 

i.     Dry. 
j.     In. 

Take  special  care  to  pronounce  each  word  very  dis- 
tinctly, and  allow  ample  time  between  trials  (the  time  the 
examiner  needs  to  record  for  each  word  is  about  correct). 
The  test  can  be  given  fairly  accurately  with  an  ordinary 
watch,  but  a  stop-watch  is  desirable.  Record  the  "asso- 
ciation time"  for  each  word  in  the  nearest  whole  number 
of  seconds.  Count  it  an  error  if  the  word  given  by  the 
child  is  not  a  true  opposite  in  meaning,  or  if  he  takes 
more  than  ten  seconds.  At  the  end  of  ten  seconds  for 
any  word  give  him  the  correct  word,  as  for  example, 
"Warm;  when  I  say  'Cold*  you  must  say  'Warm.'" 

Scoring.  Use  the  average  time  (T)  for  the  ten  words, 
not  counting  those  that  took  more  than  ten  seconds,  and 
for  which  an  error  was  recorded,  and  the  total  number  of 
errors  (E).  The  test  is  then  passed  if  T  +  E  =  3,  or 
less. 

6.  GIVING  SIMILARITIES.  Say :  "I  am  going  to  name 
two  things  which  are  alike  in  some  way,  and  I  want  you 
to  tell  me  in  what  way  they  are  alike."  Then  give  the 
following  pairs,  asking  for  each :  "In  what  way  are  they 
alike?" 

a.  "Wood  and  coal." 

b.  "An  apple  and  a  peach." 


116  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

c.  "Iron  and  silver." 

d.  "A  ship  and  an  automobile." 

A  little  urging  is  often  necessary,  by  repeating  the 

question,  or  with  such  variation  as  " and  are 

alike  in  some  way,  aren't  they?  In  what  way?"  If  a 
difference  instead  of  a  likeness  is  given,  say :  "Yes,  that 
is  the  way  they  are  different,  but  now  in  what  way  are 
they  alike?" 

Scoring.  Passed  if  a  likeness  is  given  in  two  out  of  the 
four  trials.  Any  real  likeness  pointed  out  is  satisfactory. 
A  negative  quality,  that  is,  something  that  neither 
possesses,  is  not  regarded  as  a  likeness. 

7.  FOLDING  A  SQUARE  OF  PAPER  FIVE  TIMES.  Take  a 
six-inch  square  of  paper  prepared  for  this  test  and  say : 
"I  am  going  to  fold  this  piece  of  paper  and  see  if  you  can 
fold  this  other  one  just  like  it  (showing  him  a  second 
piece).  Now,  watch." 

a.  Then,  facing  the  child,  fold  your  upper  right  cor- 
ner of  the  square  onto  a  cross  you  have  made  at  the 
center.    Then  fold  the  lower  edge  onto  the  center,  so  that 
the  right  half  of  this  edge  will  meet  the  edge  of  the  part 
folded  first.     Then  fold  the  upper  left  corner  onto  the 
cross  at  the  center  as  in  the  first  folding.    Then  fold  the 
left  edge  onto  the  right  edge.     Then  fold  the  corner  at 
the  top  onto  the  lower  left  corner,  making  a  rectangular 
piece    with    a    truncated    upper    corner.      Then    say: 
"Now,  you  make  one  just  like  this,"  giving  him  a  second 
square.    Put  one  of  the  weights  used  in  test  IX,  2  on  your 
folded  piece  to  hold  down  the  edges  while  the  child  is 
folding. 

b.  Say :     "Now,  we  will  try  another   one.     Watch 
again."     Fold  your  upper  right  corner  onto  the  cross  you 
have  made  at  the  center.    Then  fold  the  lower  left  corner 
onto  the  cross  at  the  center.    Then  fold  the  lower  side 
onto  the  upper  side  so  that  what  was  the  lower  right  half 


AGE  EIGHT  YEARS  117 

of  the  lower  edge  will  now  continue  the  left  half  of  the 
upper  edge  in  a  straight  line,  making  a  perfect  rectangle. 
Then  fold  the  upper  left  corner  onto  the  middle  of  the 
lower  edge  of  the  rectangle.  Then  fold  the  corner  on  the 
left  onto  the  lower  right  corner,  making  a  square.  Give 
the  child  the  second  piece  of  paper  and  say :  "Now,  you 
make  one  just  like  this." 

In  both  "a"  and  "b"  do  the  folding  in  about  thirty-five 
seconds,  being  careful  not  to  hide  the  operations  with 
your  hand.  Watch  the  child,  and  if  his  attention  wan- 
ders, say:  "Watch  me,  watch  me  all  the  time."  Record 
the  time  it  takes  the  child  to  do  the  folding,  and  the 
number  of  errors  he  makes  for  each  trial.  If  he  gives  up 
before  he  has  completed  five  foldings,  urge  him  to  go  on 
until  he  has  tried  for  a  total  of  100  seconds.  Count  the 
errors  always  as  five  minus  the  number  of  folds  that  he 
has  made  correctly,  irrespective  of  the  order  of  the  fold- 
ings, at  the  end  of  100  seconds  as  the  maximum  time  al- 
lowed, excepting  that  any  extra  folds  made  after  the  five 
correct  ones  are  counted  as  errors. 

Scoring.  Use  the  average  time  for  the  two  trials  (T)  and 
the  total  number  of  errors  for  the  two  trials  (E).  The 
test  is  then  passed  if  ^  -f-  E  =  3.7,  or  less. 

8.  COUNTING  DOTS.  Give  the  child  the  card  for  this  test 
and  say:  "See  how  fast  you  can  count  the  dots  in  each 
of  the  squares  on  this  card.  You  count  to  yourself,  but 
give  me  the  number  in  each  square  out  loud.  You  begin 
here  (pointing  to  the  square  in  the  upper  left  corner  of 
the  card)  and  count  each  row  of  squares  from  left  to  right 
(moving  your  finger  along  the  first  and  second  rows 
from  left  to  right).  I  want  to  see  how  fast  you  can  do 
this  without  making  any  mistakes  in  the  count.  Be  sure 
not  to  make  any  mistakes  in  the  count.  Now,  begin  here" 
(pointing-  to  the  first  square). 


OF 

If  a  second  error  is  made  in  the  first  row  of  squares, 
caution  him  by  saying:  "Be  careful.  Don't  make  any 
mistakes." 

Follow  the  count  with  your  "key"  card,  giving  the. 
number  of  dots  for  each  square.  Record  the  number  of 
squares  counted  wrongly  (E),  and  the  total  time  for 
counting  all  the  squares  (T). 

Scoring.    Passed  if     ^  -f  5E  =  26,  or  less. 

AGE  NINE  YEARS. 
GIVING  THE  DATE.    Ask  the  following: 

a.  "What  day  of  the  week  is  this?" 

b.  "What  month  is  it?" 

c.  "What  day  of  the  month  is  it?" 

d.  "What  year  is  this?" 

It  the  day  of  the  month  is  given  for  "a"  or  some  other 
misunderstanding  occurs,  as  is  occasionally  the  case  be- 
cause of  lack  of  attention,  repeat  your  question,  with  ex- 
planation, if  necessary. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  all  are  answered  correctly,  excepting 
the  day  of  the  month,  for  which  an  error  of  three  days 
is  allowed. 

2.  ARRANGEMENT  OF  WEIGHTS.  Place  the  series  of  five 
weights  for  this  test  before  the  child  and  say :  "Here  are 
some  weights.  They  do  not  all  weigh  the  same.  Some 
are  heavy  and  some  are  light,  and  no  two  are  just  alike. 
Lift  them  like  this  (lift  several  in  succession  between 
thumb  and  forefinger)  and  find  the  heaviest  one."  Hav- 
ing designated  his  choice,  say :  "Good.  Put  it  here 
(pointing  to  a  place  several  inches  in  front  of  the  rest) 
and  then  find  the  next  heaviest  and  put  it  here,  in  a  row 
with  this  one."  The  second  weight  being  chosen,  say: 
"Now,  the  next  heaviest,  and  put  it  in  a  row  with  these 
two,  and  so  on."  Point  to  the  place  each  time,  if  necessary. 
Give  no  further  direction,  except  to  urge  by  saying,  "Go 
on,"  if  necessary.  Give  three  trials,  unless  the  first  two 


AGE  NINE  YEARS  119 

are  correct.  For  the  second  trial,  say:  "That  is  good. 
See  if  you  can  do  it  again.  First  the  heaviest,  then  the 
next  heaviest,  and  so  on,  all  in  a  row."  For  the  third 
trial  say  simply,  "Now,  once  more."  Mix  the  weights 
well  before  each  trial. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  weights  are  arranged  in  correct 
order  two  times  in  three  trials. 

3.  USING  THREE  WORDS  IN  A  SENTENCE.     Say: 
"Here  are  three  words,  'Money,  river  and  St.  Paul'  (re- 
peating them  once  slowly).    Make  a  sentence  in  which 
you  use  these  three  words." 

If  he  fails  entirely  to  understand  what  is  to  be  done,  or 
makes  no  reply,  give  the  following  illustration  after  one 
minute:  "If  I  gave  you  the  words,  'Spring,  bloom  and 
flowers/  you  might  say:  'The  flowers  bloom  in  Spring/ 
Now  use  the  words  'Money,  river  and  St.  Paul,  that  way 
in  a  sentence."  Give  one-half  minute  more  for  a  response. 

If  within  the  first  minute  the  words  are  used  in  three 
separate  sentences,  or  in  three  sentences  connected  by 
"and,"  say:  "Good.  Now  see  if  you  can  put  all  three 
words  in  just  one  sentence,"  and  allow  another  half- 
minute. 

The  name  of  some  other  prominent  town  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  "St.  Paul,"  also  "Lake"  for  "River,"  in  States 
where  such  a  change  would  present  a  more  familiar  situ- 
ation to  the  child. 

If  a  corect  answer  is  given  at  once  without  hesitation, 
or  if  there  is  other  reason  for  supposing  that  he  has  been 
coached  on  this  test,  use  the  words,  "Trees,  house,  work," 
or,  "Summer,  man,  rain"  in  place  of  the  above. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  child  gives  a  sentence  correct  in 
English  with  the  three  words  in  it  in  not  more  than  two 
clauses  and  within  the  minute  and  a  half  allowed. 

4.  MAKING  CHANGE.     Say :   a.     "If  I  bought  a  pencil 


120  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

for  four  cents  and  gave  the  clerk  ten  cents,  how  much 
money  would  I  get  back?" 

b.  "If  I  bought  a  slate  for  ten  cents  and  gave  the  clerk 
twenty-five  cents,  how  much  money  would  I  get  back?" 

c.  "If  I  bought  some  candy  for  twelve  cents  and  gave 
the  clerk  fifteen  cents,  how  much  money  would  I  get 
back?" 

Repeat  the  problem  at  any  time  it  seems  necessary. 
The  answers  must  be  given  without  aid  of  pencil  or 
other  help. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  two  out  of  the  three  are  answered 
correctly. 

5.  DEFINITION  BETTER  THAN  ACCORDING  TO  USE.    Ask 
the  following :   "What  is  a : 

a.  Balloon? 

b.  Telephone? 

c.  Football? 

d.  Tiger? 

e.  Soldier?" 

If  for  any  word  there  is  no  reply,  urge  by  saying:  "You 

know  what  a >  is.  You  have  seen  a .  Now  what 

is  a  like?" 

If  the  response  for  the  first  word  is  unsatisfactory,  say : 
"Yes,  now  tell  me  all  about  a  balloon.  What  sort  of  a 
thing  is  it?"  Do  the  same  for  telephone,  but  for  the  re- 
mainder adhere  to  the  question,  "What  is  a  ?" 

simply. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  for  three  of  the  words  definitions  are 
given  better  than  according  to  use.  (See  comments  on 
this  test  in  next  chapter  for  kinds  of  definitions  usually 
given  and  their  classification.  Page  174.) 

6.  COMPREHENSION.     Give  the  child  a  sheet  of  the  blank 
circles  used  for  this  test  and  a  pencil,  and  say :  "See  this 
dot  at  the  center  of  the  circle?"    (Point  to  one  with  your 


AGE  NINE  YEARS  121 

pencil).   Then  give  the  following,  speaking  very  slowly: 
"Draw  a  square  on  that  circle  so  that  the : 

a.  Upper  left  corner 

b.  Middle  of  the  right  side 

c.  Lower  left  corner 

d.  Middle  of  upper  side 

e.  Upper  right  corner 

f.  Middle  of  lower  side 

of  the  square  will  be  at  the  center  of  the  circle."  Give 
one  at  a  time,  and  repeat  each  one  once,  unless  obviously 
unnecessary.  If  he  does  not  understand,  or  draws  wrong- 
ly for  the  first  one,  draw  it  for  him,  after  thirty  seconds, 
and  explain  fully  as  follows :  First  draw  a  small  square 
above  the  circle.  Then  say :  "Now,  we  will  draw  this 
square  on  this  circle  so  that  the  upper  left  corner  of  the 
square  will  be  at  the  center  of  the  circle,  like  this."  Then 
draw  the  square,  and  so  that  its  upper  right  corner  will 
be  at  the  dot  in  the  circumference  on  the  right,  and  its 
lower  left  corner  at  the  dot  in  the  circumference  at  the 
bottom,  its  upper  left  corner  being  then  at  the  dot  in  the 
center  of  the  circle.  Then -add:  "Now  this  is  the  upper 
left  corner  of  the  square  (pointing  to  it).  See?  And  it 
'is  at  the  center  of  the  circle." 

If  the  child  does  not  understand,  or  draws  wrongly 
for  the  second  trial,  draw  this  for  him  also,  and  go 
through  the  same  procedure  as  in  the  first. 

Give  no  further  aid  for  the  remaining-  trials,  other  than 
simply  to  repeat  the  directions  once.  Record  the  time  it 
takes  him  to  draw  the  square  in  each  case,  counting  from 
the  end  of  your  repetition  of  the  direction,  but  do  not 
allow  over  thirty  seconds  for  any  trial.  If  at  the  end  of 
this  thirty  seconds  a  correct  drawing  is  not  completed, 
count  it  an  error,  and  record  thirty  seconds  for  the  time. 
Compute  tb*  average  time  (T)  for  the  six  trials,  and 


122  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

record  the  total  number  of  trials  in  which  he  failed  (E). 
Scoring.    Passed  if  £-   +  E  =  7,  or  less. 

7.  REPEATING  FOUR  NUMERALS  BACKWARDS.     Say:    "I 
am  going  to  read  you  some  numbers,  and  when  I  am 
through  I  want  you  to  say  them  backwards.   If  I  should 
say  'l — 2 — 3 — 4,'  you  must  say  '4 — 3 — 2 — 1.'   Now,  listen 
carefully,  so  you  will  be  able  to  say  them  backwards." 

Explain  further  after  the  first  of  the  following  three 
trials,  if  necessary,  but  no  more.  Read  the  numerals  at 
the  rate  of  one  per  second. 

a.  "6—4—2—8." 

b.  "5—9—3—7." 
r.     "3—6—2—9." 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  numerals  are  repeated  backwards 
correctly  in  one  out  of  the  three  trials. 

8.  COUNTING  DOTS.     Give  the  child  the  card  for  thi? 
test  and  say:   "See  how  fast  you  can  count  the  dots  in 
each  of  the  squares  on  this  card.   You  count  to  yourself, 
but  give  me  the  number  in  each  square  out  loud.    You 
begin  here  (pointing  to  the  square  in  the  upper  left  cor- 
ner of  the  card),  and  count  each  row  of  squares  from  left 
to  right  (moving  your  finger  along  the  first  and  second 
rows  in  this  direction).   I  want  to  see  how  fast  you  can 
do  this  without  making  any  mistakes  in  the  count.    Be 
sure  not  to  make  any  mistakes  in  the  count.   Now  begin 
here"  (pointing  to  the  first  square).   If  a  second  error  is 
made  in  the  first  row  of  squares,  caution  him  by  saying: 
"Be  careful.   Do  not  make  any  mistakes." 

Follow  the  count  with  your  "key"  card,  giving  the 
number  of  dots  for  each  square.  Record  the  number  of 
squares  counted  wrongly  (E)  and  the  total  time  for 
counting  all  the  squares  (T). 

Scoring.     Passed  if  I   +  5E  =  20,  or  less. 


AGE  TEN  YEARS  123 

AGE  TEN  YEARS. 

1.  DRAWING  DESIGNS  FROM  MEMORY.    Take  the  card 
for  this  test  and  say :    "I  am  going  to  show  you  this  card 
(showing  it  face  up  just  an  instant,  less  than  a  second) 
for  ten  seconds,  and  then  see  how  well  you  can  draw 
what  is  on  it  from  memory.  Now,  ten  seconds  is  not  very 
long,  so  you  will  have  to  notice  pretty  carefully  just  how 
it  is."  Then  give  him  a  paper  to  draw  on,  show  the  card 
for  ten  seconds ;  then  turn  it  face  down  and  give  him  a 
pencil  immediately,  and  say :  "Now,  draw  what  you  saw." 

Scoring.  Passed  if  one  of  the  designs  is  drawn  correctly 
and  the  other  about  half  correct.  Small  errors  that  might 
be  due  merely  to  roughness  of  drawing  are  not  counted. 
Not  placing  the  inner  rectangle  in  the  design  on  the  right 
to  the  right  of  the  center  is  not  counted  an  error.  Placing 
one  or  both  of  the  squares  in  the  design  on  the  left  turned 
away  from  the  center  instead  of  towards  it,  or  not  having 
the  central  part  of  the  correct  relative  height,  or  other 
similar  degree  of  defect,  are  still  counted  as  "Half  right." 
Correct  means  substantially  correct,  all  the  parts  there, 
and  none  added.  Less  than  half  correct  means  more  than 
one  part  of  the  design  substantially  wrong. 

2.  COUNTING  DOTS.     Give  the  child  the  card  for  this 
test,  and  say:   "See  how  fast  you  can  count  the  dots  in 
each  of  the  squares  on  this  card.   You  count  to  yourself, 
but  give  me  the  number  in  each  square  out  loud.    You 
begin  here  (pointing  to  the  square  in  the  upper  left  cor- 
ner of  the  card)  and  count  each  row  of  squares  from  left 
to  right  (moving  your  finger  along  the  first  and  second 
rows  in  this  direction.)     I  want  to  see  how  fast  you  can 
do  this  without  making  any  mistakes  in  the  count.    Be 
sure  not  to  make  any  mistakes  in  the  count.   Now,  begin 
here"  (pointing  to  the  first  square).     If  a  second  error 
is  made  in  the  first  row  of  squares,  caution  him  by  saying : 
"Be  careful.  Don't  make  any  mistakes." 


124 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 


.Follow  the  count  with  your  "key"  card,  giving  the 
number  of  dots  for  each  square.  Record  the  number  of 
squares  counted  wrongly  (E),  and  the  total  time  for 
counting  all  the  squares  (T). 

Scoring.  Passed  if  ~  +  5E  =  15,  or  less. 
>(^3.  SPELLING  FAMILIAR  WORDS  BACKWARDS.  Say: 
"I  am  going  to  give  you  some  words  and  see  how  fast 
you  can  spell  them  backwards."  Then  give  words  from 
the  following  lists  until  five  trials  are  secured  from  each 
of  the  two  lists.  Allow  not  more  than  sixty  seconds  for 
a  word.  If  he  fails,  have  him  spell  it  forwards,  and  if  he 
cannot  readily  spell  it  correctly  forwards,  count  it  out 
as  no  trial,  unless  his  ways  of  spelling  it  forwards  and 
backwards  agree  and  he  has  not  made  a  shorter  word 
out  of  it.  In  the  latter  case,  count  it  as  correct.  Record 
the  time  for  each  word  and  the  number  of  trials  on  which 
he  fails. 


1.  Almost. 

11.  Winter. 

1.  Another. 

11.  Brought. 

2.  Pencil. 

12.  Answer. 

2.  Picture. 

12.  Because. 

3.  Around. 

13.  Bought. 

3.  Outside. 

13.  Against. 

4.  Become. 

14.  People. 

4.  Instead. 

14.  Chicken. 

5.  Finger. 

15.  Before. 

5.  Already. 

15.  Whistle. 

6.  Ground. 

16.  Minute. 

6.  Country. 

16.  Janitor. 

7.  Behind. 

17.  Coming. 

7.  Counter. 

17.  Trouble. 

8.  Single. 

18.  Sunday. 

8.  Brother. 

18.  Surface. 

9.  Income. 

19.  Member. 

9.  Tonight. 

19.  Morning. 

10.  Prince. 

20.  Engine. 

10.  However. 

20.  Nothing. 

Compute  the  average  time  for  a  word  (T)  and  count 
the  total  number  of  words  on  which  he  failed  in  the  ten 
trials  counted  (E). 

Scoring.     Passed  if  ~  +  E  =  7,  or  less. 

4.  COUNTING  IRREGULAR  SERIES  OF  NINE  TO  TWELVE 
TAPS.  Say:  "I  am  going  to  tap  on  the  table  and  see  if 
you  can  count  the  number  of  taps.  You  must  count  to 


AGE  TEN  YEARS 


125 


yourself,  and  give  me  the  number  when  I  ask  you."  Then 
tap  the  series  given  for  illustration,  a  tap  for  each  dot, 
carefully  screening  the  movements  of  your  hand  and  arm 
from  the  child's  sight  with  a  large  cardboard.  Then  for 
the  second  series  say :  "Now,  I  will  not  always  tap  regu- 
larly as  I  did  this  time,  ibut  irregularly;  first,  fast,  then, 
slow,  and  all  mixed  up.  Be  careful  to  count  just  those 
you  hear,  no  more  or  less.  Now,  listen.  Begin  with  one 
again."  Then  tap  the  remaining  series  in  order  at  the  rate 
of  one  square  per  second,  tapping  once  for  each  dot,  and 
pausing  a  second  for  each  blank  square.  Tap  rather 
loudly  with  the  blunt  end  of  a  pencil  or  with  the  edge 
of  a  coin. 


Illus. 

10 

a 

• 

• 

• 

• 

•• 

• 

• 

• 

9 

b 

•• 

• 

•  • 

• 

10 

c 

• 

• 

... 

• 

• 

•>• 

• 

•• 

12 

d 

• 

•• 

. 

• 

• 

... 

• 

11 

e 

... 

•• 

• 

• 

•• 

12 

Scoring.  Passed  if  three  out  of  the  five  series  are  counted 
correctly,  not  counting  the  one  given  for  illustration. 

5.  DETECTION  OF  ABSURDITIES  IN  ABSURD  STATEMENTS. 
Say :  "I  am  going  to  read  you  something  that  has  some 
nonsense  in  it.  Listen  carefully  and  tell  me  what  you 
think  of  what  I  read."  Then  read  the  following  slowly 
and  with  expression,  asking  after  each:  "What  do  you 
think  of  that?" 

a.  "A  little  boy  said,  'I  have  three  brothers — Paul, 
Ernest  and  myself.' " 


126  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

b.  "A  bicycle  rider,  being  thrown  from  his  bicycle  in 
an  accident,  struck  his  head  against  a  stone  and  was  in- 
stantly killed.    They  took  him  to  the  hospital,  but  they 
do  not  think  that  he  will  get  well  again." 

c.  "A  man  said  'I  know  a  road  from  my  house  to  the 
city,  which  is  (down  hill  all  the  way  to  the  city,  and  down 
hill  all  the  way  back  home/  " 

d.  "Yesterday  the  police  found  the  body  of  a  young 
girl  cut  into  eighteen  pieces.    They  say  that  she  killed 
herself." 

If  for  any  one  the  child  remains  silent,  repeat  the 
statement  or  the  question,  "What  do  you  think  of  that?" 
or  change  to  "What  is  the  matter  with  that?"  If  the  re- 
sponse given  leaves  doubt  as  to  whether  he  recognizes 
the  absurdity,  ask  him  to  explain  in  a  manner  appropriate 
to  the  nature  of  the  response. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  the  absurdity  is  recognized  in  three 
of  the  four  statements. 

6.  GIVING  THE  ASSOCIATED  NUMBERS  FOR  THE  DIS- 
SECTED PARTS  OF  A  SIMPLE  FORM.  There  are  two  6x8  inch 
cards,  each  with  forms  on  both  sides,  for  this  test.  Show 
the  first  card  marked  1  for  the  test  and  say :  "See  these 
four  lines  crossing  with  the  letters  in  the  corners  and 
parts.  Here  is  'a',  'b',  'c',  down  through  on  your  left ;  *d', 
V,  T,  down  through  the  middle;  and  *g'»  *h',  *i*  down 
through  on  your  right"  (pointing  to  the  letters  in  order). 

Then  place  the  second  card,  marked  2,  in  front  of  the 
first  and  say:  "Now  here  are  the  parts,  but  the  letters 
are  not  there.  What  letter  goes  into  this  one?"  (Point 
to  the  first  part  in  the  upper  left  corner  of  this  card.)  If 
he  does  not  understand  at  once  what  is  meant,  explain  in 
any  manner  necessary,  and  have  him  in  this  way  give 
the  letters  for  the  first  five  parts,  taking  them  in  reading 
order  on  the  card,  while  he  has  both  cards  before  him. 
Do  not  hurry  him,  and  make  sure  that  he  understands. 


AGE  TEN  YEARS  127 

Then  place  the  third  card  (opposite  side  of  the  first 
card)  and  marked  3  in  place  of  the  first  and  say :  "Here 
is  the  same  thing,  only  it  has  numbers  instead  of  letters. 
I  am  going  to  see  in  a  moment  how  fast  you  can  give  me 
the  numbers  for  these  parts  (pointing  again  to  the  second 
card)  after  I  take  away  this  card  with  the  numbers  so  you 
can't  see  it.'" 

Then  remove  the  second  card  and  say :  "So  look  care- 
fully at  these  numbers  first  and  see  how  they  go."  Give 
him  thirty  seconds  for  this,  and  then  replace  the  third 
card  with  the  fourth  (opposite  side  of  the  second,  and 
marked  4),  and  say :  "Now,  do  this  carefully  and  get  each 
number  just  right.  What  number  goes  in  here?"  (point- 
ing to  the  first  part  in  the  upper  left  corner  of  the  fourth 
card).  Point  to  each  in  reading  order  as  he  gives  the 
numbers.  If  he  obviously  guesses  at  the  numbers,  cau- 
tion him  after  the  second  error  with :  "Be  careful.  Take 
your  time  for  each  and  get  it  right." 

Use  the  "key"  card  in  following  the  responses.  Record 
the  number  of  parts  for  which  the  wrong  numbers  are 
given  (E)  and  the  total  time  (T)  for  the  nine  parts. 

Scoring.     Passed  if  5  (  *  +  10E)  =  340,  or  less. 

7.  CROSSING  OUT  Q,  R,  s,  T  IN  A  PIED  -TExT.  Place  the 
sheet  for  this  test  before  the  child  and  say:  "Here  is  a 
sheet  of  paper  with  the  alphabet  on  it  all  mixed  up.  I  am 
going  to  see  how  fast  you  can  cross  out  all  the  q's,  r's,  s's 
and  t's.  You  cross  out  a  q  like  this,  an  r  like  this,  an  s  like 
this,  and  a  t  like  this.  (Show  him  in  an  allustration  with 
the  four  letters  at  the  top  of  the  sheet  by  crossing  out  the 
q  with  a  vertical  stroke,  the  r  with  a  horizonal  one,  the 
s  with  a  diagonal  one  inclining  to  the  right  at  the  top,  and 
the  t  with  a  diagonal  one  inclining  to  the  left  at  the  top). 
Notice  carefully  how  you  are  to  cross  out  each  letter,  so 
you  won't  have  to  look  up  so  often  to  sec." 


128  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

Then  give  him  thirty  seconds  to  memorize  this.  Then 
give  him  a  pencil  and  say:  "Now,  take  one  line  at  a 
time,  always  from  left  to  right  (passing  your  pencil  over 
a  line  or  two  in  this  direction)  and  cross  out  all  four  let- 
ters as  you  go  along.  Don't  go  back  to  cross  out  any  let- 
ters that  you  may  have  skipped.  Begin." 

Watch  him  for  the  first  line  and  call  his  attention  to 
every  error  made,  letter  skipped,  letter  crossed  out 
wrongly,  and  wrong  letter  crossed  out,  and  have  him 
correct  them.  Give  no  further  direction  after  this. 
Record  the  total  time  that  it  takes  him  for  the  sheet  (T) 
and  the  total  number  of  errors  (E),  counting  all  three 
classes  together,  and  including  any  he  may  have  corrected 
by  your  direction  in  the  first  line.  Errors  corrected  by 
himself  are  not  counted. 

A  convenient  way  to  determine  the  number  of  errors 
made  is  to  count  the  number  of  letters  he  crosses  out  cor- 
rectly while  he  is  working,  keeping  a  separate  count  of 
the  wrong  letters  that  he  crosses  out.  Then  subtract  the 
number  he  crossed  out  correctly  from  fifty  and  add  to- 
this  remainder  the  number  of  wrong  letters  he  crossed 
out.  , 

Scoring.     Passed  if  |    +  5E  =  128,  or  less. 

8.  GIVING  WORD  OPPOSITES.  With  the  card  for  this  test 
in  your  hand  in  inverted  position,  say :  "I  have  twenty 
words  here.  I  am  going  to  see  how  fast  you  can  begin 
with  the  top  one  and  give  me  a  word  for  each  word  you 
see  here  that  means  just  the  opposite.  We  will  try  it  first 
with  these  five  words  on  this  card."  Then  give  the 
five  trial  words,  using  them  in  any  way  necessary  to  make 
plain  how  it  is  to  be  done.  He  is  simply  to  pronounce 
the  opposites  out  loud  and  not  the  words  on  the  card. 

Then  place  the  list  of  twenty  before  him,  face  down, 
and  say:  "Now,  we  will  try  these.  If  you  come  to  arty 
word  for  which  you  cannot  find  an  opposite,  keep  on  try- 


AGE  ELEVEN  YEARS  129- 

ing  until  I  say  'Next,'  and  then  go  on  to  the  next  word 
at  once.  (Allow  ten  seconds  for  any  such  word). 
Ready."  Then,  after  about  a  second,  turn  the  card  face 
up.  Follow  him  with  the  duplicate  list  of  words  supplied 
for  the  examiner.  .Record  the  total  time  for  the  twenty 
words,  and  the  total  number  of  errors  (E),  counting  as 
errors  words  given  that  are  not  opposites,  and  words 
skipped  when  told  to  skip  by  the  examiner,  or  otherwise. 
Compute  the  average  time  for  a  word  (T)  by  dividing 
the  total  time  by  twenty,  counting  the  time  for  the  words 
skipped. 

Scoring.     'Passed  if  30  (T  +  E)  =  280,  or  less. 

AGE  ELEVEN  YEARS. 

1.  WORDS  TO  PUT  IN  ORDER  TO  MAKE  A  SENTENCE. 
Show  the  first  card  for  this  test  and  say :  "Here  are  some 
words  of  a  sentence  all  mixed  up.   See  if  you  can  change 
them  around  so  they  will  make  a  sentence  and  mean 
something."   If  he  does  not  succeed  in  two  minutes,  give 

him  the  following  help  :  "We  started" (Pause).  "We 

started  for  the  park (Pause)  at  an  early  hour.    We 

started  for  the  park  at  an  early  hour."     Give  this  very 
slowly  and  show  him  the  words  in  the  lines  as  you  give 
them  to  him.     Then  give  the  other  two  trials  without 
further  help,  except  that  his  attention  may  be  called  to 
any  slight  error  in  his  sentence,  such  as  the  omission  or 
alteration  of  a  word.    He  may  then  be  allowed  to  correct 
this  error  and  receive  credit  for  the  trial  if  he  uses  no 
more  than  two  minutes  altogether  for  the  sentence. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  two  sentences  are  given  correctly, 
using  all  the  words,  without  alteration  or  addition,  in  two 
minutes  each. 

2.  REPEATING  ONE  OR  Two  SENTENCES  WITH  TWENTY- 
FOUR  SYLLABLES.     Say:     "I  am  going  to  read  you  long 
sentences.     See  if  you  can  repeat  them,  word  for  word, 
just  as  I  read  them."     Then  give  the  following: 


130  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

a.  *fChildren,  it  is  necessary  to  work  for  a  living.    You 
must  go  to  your  school  every  morning." 

b.  "When  the  train  crosses  the  road,  the  engineer  will 
blow  the  whistle  and  the  fireman  will  ring  the  bell." 

c.  "The  apple  tree  makes  a  cool  shade  on  the  ground 
where  kittle  boys  and*girls  play  on  the  hot  summer  days." 

If  he  fails  in  the  first  sentence  by  only  a  slight  error  of 
a  word  or  so,  say :  "Say  it  just  as  I  say  it,  word  for  word," 
and  then  give  a  second  trial  on  the  same  sentence,  in 
order  to  impress  him  with  the  fact  that  no  change  of  any 
sort  is  permissible. 

Scoring.  Passed  if  one  of  the  three  sentences  is.  repeated 
without  error  after  one  reading. 

3.  GIVING   DEFINITIONS    OF    ABSTRACT    TERMS.     Say: 
"Can  you  tell  me  what  'pity*  means?"    Then  ask  the  fol- 
lowing:   "What  is: 

a.  Pity? 

b.  Bravery? 

c.  Charity? 

d.  Revenge? 

e.  Justice?" 

If  a  word  is  defined  in  terms  of  itself,  as  "Pity  is  to  pity 
someone,"  say:  "Yes,  and  what  is  it  to  pity  anyone?" 

If  there  is  no  response,  urge  with :  "You  know  what 

is,  don't  you?"  or  "You  have  heard  that  word  before, 
haven't  you?  What  does  it  mean?" 

Scoring.  Passed  if  three  of  the  five  words  are  defined 
satisfactorily.  A  definition  is  satisfactory  if  it  indicates 
simply  that  the  meaning  of  the  word  is  really  understood. 
Formal  or  logical  definitions  are  not  required,  and  a  cor- 
rect illustration  is  accepted  in  place  of  a  definition. 

4.  GIVING   THE   ASSOCIATED   NUMBERS   FOR  THE   DIS- 
SECTED PARTS  OF  A  SIMPLE  FORM.     There  are  two  6x8 
inch  cards,  each  with  forms  on  both  sides,  for  this  test. 
Show  the  first  card,  marked  1,  for  the  test  and  say:  "See 


AGE  ELEVEN  YEARS  131 

these  four  lines  crossing  with  the  letters  in  the  corners 
and  parts.  Here  is  'a',  V,  V,  down  through  on  your  left ; 
•d',  'e',  T,  down  through  the  middle,  and  'g',  'h',  T,  down 
through  on  your  right"  (pointing  to  the  letters  in  order). 

Then  place  the  second  card,  marked  2,  in  front  of  the 
first  and  say:  "Now,  here  are  the  parts,  but  the  letters 
are  not  there.  What  letter  goes  into  this  one?"  (Point 
to  the  first  part  in  the  upper  left  corner  of  this  card).  If 
he  does  not  understand  at  once  what  is  meant,  explain 
in  any  manner  necessary,  and  have  him  in  this  way  give 
the  letters  for  the  first  five  parts,  taking  them  in  reading 
order  on  the  card,  while  he  has  both  cards  before  him. 
Do  not  hurry  him,  and  make  sure  that  he  understands. 

Then  place  the  third  card,  marked  3  (opposite  side  of 
the  first  card)  in  place  of  the  first  and  say :  "Here  is  the 
same  thing,  only  it  has  numbers  instead  of  letters.  I  am 
going  to  see  in  a  moment  how  fast  you  can  give  me  the 
numbers  for  these  parts  (pointing  again  to  the  second 
card)  after  I  take  away  this  card  with  the  numbers  so 
you  can't  see  it." 

Then  remove  the  second  card  and  say :  "So  look  care- 
fully at  these  numbers  first  and  see  how  they  go."  Give 
him  thirty  seconds  for  this,  and  then  replace  the  third 
card  with  the  fourth,  marked  4  (opposite  side  of  the 
second  card),  and  say:  "Now,  do  this  carefully  and  get 
each  number  just  right.  What  number  goes  in  here?" 
(pointing  to  the  first  part  in  the  upper  left  corner  of  the 
fourth  card).  Point  to  each  in  reading  order  as  he  gives 
the  numbers.  If  he  obviously  guesses  at  the  numbers, 
caution  him  after  the  second  error  with :  "Be  careful. 
Take  your  time  for  each  one  and  get  it  right." 

Use  the  "key"  card  in  following  the  responses.  Record 
the  number  of  parts  for  which  the  wrong  numbers  are 
given  (E)  and  the  total  time  (T)  for  the  nine  parts. 

Scoring.     Passed  if  5  (  ^  +  10E)  =  225,  or  less. 


132  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

5.  CROSSING  OUT  Q,  R,  s,  T  IN  A  PIED  TEXT.  Place 
the  sheet  for  this  test  .before  the  child  and  say :  "Here  is 
a  sheet  of  paper  with  the  alphabet  on  it  all  mixed  up.  I 
am  going  to  see  how  fast  you  can  cross  out  all  the  q's, 
r's,  s's  and  t's.  You  cross  out  a  q  like  this,  an  r  like  this, 
an  s  like  this  and  a  t  like  this  (show  him  in  an  illustra- 
tion with  the  four  letters  at  the  top  of  the  sheet  by  cross- 
ing* out  the  q  with  a  vertical  stroke,  the  r  with  a  horizon- 
tal one,  the  s  with  a  diagonal  one  inclining  to  the  right  at 
the  top,  and  the  t  with  a  diagonal  one  inclining  to  the 
left  at  the  top).  Notice  carefully  how  you  are  to  cross 
out  each  letter,  so  that  you  won't  have  to  look  up  so  often 
to  see." 

Then  give  him  thirty  seconds  to  memorize  this.  Then 
give  him  a  pencil  and  say :  "Now,  take  one  line  at  a  time, 
always  from  left  to  right  (passing  your  pencil  over  a 
line  or  two  in  this  direction)  and  cross  out  all  four  let- 
ters as  you  go  along.  Don't  go  back  to  cross  out  any 
letters  that  you  may  have  skipped.  Begin." 

Watch  him  for  the  first  line  and  call  his  attention  to 
every  error  made,  letters  skipped,  letters  crossed  out 
wrongly  and  wrong  letters  crossed  out,  and  have  him 
correct  them.  Give  no  further  direction  after  this. 
Record  the  total  time  it  takes  him  for  the  sheet  (T)  and 
the  total  number  of  errors  (E),  counting  all  three  classes 
together,  and  including  any  he  may  have  corrected  by 
your  direction  in  the  first  line.  Errors  corrected  by 
himself  are  not  counted. 

A  convenient  way  to  determine  the  number  of  errors 
made  is  to  count  the  number  of  letters  he  crosses  out 
correctly  while  he  is  working,  keeping  a  separate  count 
of  the  wrong  letters  that  he  crosses  out.  Then  subtract 
the  number  he  crossed  out  correctly  from  fifty  and  add 


AGE  ELEVEN  YEARS  133 

to    this    remainder    the    number    of    wrong     letters     he 
crossed  out. 
Scoring.    Passed  if  I  +  5E  =  117,  or  less. 

6.  SIMPLE  ARITHMETICAL  PROBLEMS.     Show  the  child 
the  blank  for  this  test  for  a  few  seconds,  and  say :  "Here 
are  a  number  of  simple  problems  in  adding,  subtracting, 
multiplying  and  dividing.     I  want  to  see  how  fast  you 
can  do  them  all  and  write  the  correct  answer  after  each. 
In  dividing  you  put  down  the  fraction  left  over  as  well 
as  the  whole  number.    For  instance,  if  you  had  12  -=-  5  =, 
you  would  write  2Ji."     (Write  this  on  a  piece  of  paper 
so  he  can  watch  you  as  you  give  the  illustration.) 

Then  give  him  the  blank  and  say :  "Now,  begin  at  the 
top  and  take  one  after  the  other  down.  Be  sure  to  get 
each  one  correct" 

Record  the  total  time  (T)  for  the  test.  Use  the  card 
furnished  with  the  testing  materials  giving  the  correct 
answers.  Place  the  edge  of  this  card  alongside  the  col- 
umn of  problems,  and  count  the  total  number  of  errors 
made  (E). 

Scoring.     Passed  if    ~      +  10E  =  150,  or  less. 

7.  GIVING  WORD  OPPOSITES.     With  the  card   for  this 
test  in  your  hand  in  inverted  position,    say:     "I    have 
twenty  words  here.   I  am  going  to  see  how  fast  you  can 
begin  with  the  top  one  and  give  me  a  word  for  each  word 
you  see  here  that  means  just  the  opposite.     We  will 
try  it  first  with  these  five  words  on  this  card."     Then 
give  the  five  trial  words,  using  them  in  any  way  neces- 
sary to  make  plain  how  it  is  to  be  done.     He  is  simply 
to  pronounce  the  opposites  out  loud,  and  not  the  words 
on  the  card. 

Then  place  the  list  of  twenty  before  him,  face  down, 
and  say:  "Now,  we  will  try  these.  If  you  come  to  a 
word  for  which  you  cannot  find  an  opposite,  keep  on  try- 
ing until  I  say  'Next/  and  then  go  on  to  the  next  word 


134  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

at  once.  (Allow  ten  seconds  for  any  such  word.)  Ready.'* 
Then,  after  about  a  second,  turn  the  card  face  up.  Fol- 
low him  with  the  duplicate  list  of  words  supplied  for  the 
examiner.  Record  the  total  time  for  the  twenty  words, 
and  the  total  number  of  errors  (E),  counting  as  errors 
words  given  that  are  not  opposites,  and  words  skipped 
when  told  to  skip  by  the  examiner,  or  otherwise.  Com- 
pute the  average  time  for  a  word  (T)  by  dividing  the 
total  time  by  twenty,  counting  the  time  for  the  words 
skipped. 

Scoring.     Passed  if  30  (T  +  E)  =  235,  or  less. 

8.  IMMEDIATE  RECALL  OF  UNFAMILIAR  FORMS.  Place 
the  sheet  of  blank  circles  for  this  test  before  the  child, 
and  with  the  ten  cards  for  the  test  in  your  hand,  say: 
"Here  are  ten  cards,  each  with  a  circle  and  four  lines,  like 
this  (showing  a  card  in  the  middle  of  the  pack  for  about 
a  second,  and  in  inverted  position).  I  will  show  you  each 
card  for  ten  seconds  and  you  will  then  at  once  draw  the 
four  lines  on  one  of  these  circles  (pointing  to  the  sheet) 
just  as  you  saw  them,  and  as  fast  as  you  can.  Now,  it 
will  make  it  much  easier  to  do  this  if  you  will  remember 
that  some  of  the  four  lines  are  inside  the  circle  and  some 
are  outside  (showing  these  points  on  a  card  or  two  from 
the  middle  of  the  pack,  as  before) ;  that  each  line  touches 
the  circle  exactly  on  a  dot,  or  exactly  half  way  between 
dots."  (showing  these  points  on  a  circle  on  the  blank  be- 
fore him). 

Then  present  the  first  card,  face  down,  and  say:  "Here 
is  the  first  one.  Ready,"  turning  it  face  up  about  a  second 
later.  After  ten  seconds  take  away  the  card  and  say : 
"Now,  draw  on  this  circle,"  pointing  to  the  first  blank 
circle. 

Record  the  time  taken  to  draw  the  four  lines,  but  allow 
not  over  sixty  seconds.  Record  the  number  of  lines  drawn 
wrongly  plus  those  not  drawn  at  all,  and  not  counting 
errors  due  to  roughness  of  drawing  merely.  Place  the 
card  face  up  in  the  same  position  as  before  while  you 


ACJS  TWELVE  YEARS  135 

record  the  errors,  so  he  may  see  the  mistakes  he  made. 
Use  the  remaining"  cards  in  the  same  way.  Compute  the 
average  time  taken  to  draw  the  four  lines  of  a  card  (T), 
and  count  the  total  number  of  errors  for  the  ten  cards, 
lines  drawn  wrongly  plus  lines  omitted  (E). 
Scoring.  Passed  if  7T  +  10E  =  245,  or  less. 

AGE  TWELVE  YEARS. 

1.  SPELLING  FAMILIAR  WORDS  BACKWARDS.  Say: 
"I  am  going  to  give  you  some  words  and  see  how  fast 
you  can  spell  them  backwards."  Then  give  words  from 
the  following  lists  until  five  trials  are  secured  from  each 
of  the  two  lists.  Allow  not  more  than  sixty  seconds  for 
a  word.  If  he  fails,  have  him  spell  it  forwards,  and  if  he 
cannot  readily  spell  it  forwards,  count  it  out  as  no  trial, 
unless  his  ways  of  spelling  it  forwards  and  backwards 
agree  and  he  lias  not  made  a  shorter  word  out  of  it.  In 
the  latter  case  -count  it  as  correct.  Record  the  time  for 
each  word  and  the  number  of  trials  on  which  he  fails. 

1.  Almost.  11.  Winter.  1.  Another.         19.  Morning. 

2.  Pencil.  12.  Answer.  2.  Picture.  11.  Brought 


3.  Around. 
4.  Become. 
5.  Finger. 
6.  Ground. 
7.  Behind. 
8.  Single. 
9.  Income. 
10.  Prince. 

13.  Bought. 
14.  People. 
15.  Before. 
16.  Minute. 
17.  Coming. 
18.  Sunday. 
19.  Member. 
20.  Engine. 

3.  Outside. 
4.  Instead. 
5.  Already. 
6.  Country. 
7.  Counter. 
8.  Brother. 
9.  Tonight. 
10.  However. 

12.  Because. 
13.  Against. 
14.  Chicken. 
15.  Whistle. 
16.  Janitor. 
17.  Trouble. 
18.  Surface. 
20.  Nothing. 

Compute  the  average  time  for  a  word  (T)  and  count  the 
total  number  of  words  on  which  he  failed  in  the  ten  trials 
counted  (E). 

Scoring.    Passed  if   ~  +  E  =  5,  or  less. 

2.  GIVING  THE  NUMBERS  FOR  THE  DISSECTED  PARTS  OF 
A  SIMPLE  FORM.  (1)  There  are  two  6x8  inch  cards,  each 
with  forms  on  both  sides,  for  this  test.  Show  the  first 
card,  marked  1,  for  the  test  and  say:  "See  these  four 


136  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS' 

lines  crossing  with  the  letters  in  the  corners  and  parts. 
Here  is  'a',  V,  V,  down  through  on  your  left;  *d',  V, 
T,  down  through  the  middle ;  and  *g',  *h',  V,  down  through 
on  your  right'*  (pointing  to  the  letters  in  order). 

Then  place  the  second  card,  marked  2,  in  front  of  the 
first  and  say:  "Now  here  are  the  parts,  but  the  letters  are 
not  there.  What  letter  goes  in  this  one?"  (Point  to  the 
first  part  in  the  upper  left  corner  of  the  card).  If  he  does 
not  understand  at  once  what  is  meant,  explain  in  any 
manner  necessary,  and  have  him  in  this  way  give  the 
letters  for  the  first  five  parts,  taking-  them  in  reading 
order  on  the  card,  while  he  has  both  cards  before  him. 
Do  not  hurry  him,  and  make  sure  that  he  understands.. 

Then  place  the  third  card,  marked  3,  (opposite  side 
of  the  first  card)  in  place,  of  the  first  and  say :  "Here  is 
the  same  thing,  only  it  has  numbers  instead  of  letters. 
I  am  going  to  see  in  a  moment  how  fast  you  can  give  me 
the  numbers  for  these  parts  (pointing  again  to  the  second 
card)  after  I  take  away  this  card  with  the  numbers  so 
you  can't  see  it." 

Then  remove  the  second  card  and  say :  "So  look  care- 
fully at  these  numbers  first  and  see  how  they  go."  Give 
him  thirty  seconds  for  this,  and  then  replace  the  third 
card  with  the  fourth,  marked  4,  (opposite  side  of  the  sec- 
ond card),  and  say:  "Now  do  this  carefully  and  get 
each  number  just  right.  What  number  goes  in  here!" 
(pointing  to  the  first  part  in  the  upper  left  corner  of  the 
fourth  card).  Point  to  each  in  reading  order  as  he  gives 
the  numbers.  If  he  obviously  guesses  at  the  numbers, 
caution  him  after  the  second  error  with :  "Be  careful. 
Take  your  time  for  each  one  and  get  it  right." 

Use  the  "key"  card  in  following  the  responses.  Record 
the  number  of  parts  for  which  the  wrong  numbers  arc 
given  (E)  and  the  total  time  (T)  for  the  nine  parts. 

Scoring.    Passed  if  5  (  I  +  10E)  =  185,  or  less. 


AGE  TWELVE  YEARS  137 

3.  CROSSING  OUT  g,  R,  s,  T  IN  A  PIED  TEXT.  (2)  Place 
the  sheet  for  this  test  before  the  child  and  say :  "Here  is 
a  sheet  of  paper  with  the  alphabet  on  it  all  mixed  up.  I 
am  going  to  see  how  fast  you  can  cross  out  all  the 
q's,  r's,  s's  and  t's.  You  cross  out  a  q  like  this,  an  r  like 
this,  an  s  like  this,  and  a  t  like  this  (showing  him  in  an 
illustration  with  the  four  letters  at  the  top  of  the  sheet  by 
crossing  out  the  q  with  a  vertical  stroke,  the  r  with  a 
horizontal  one,  the  s  with  a  diagonal  one  inclining  to 
the  right  at  the  top,  and  the  t  with  a  diagonal  one  inclin- 
ing to  the  left  at  the  top).  Notice  carefully  how 
you  are  to  cross  out  each  letter,  so  you  won't  have  to 
look  up  so  often  to  see." 

Give  him  thirty  seconds  to  memorize  this.  Then  give 
him  a  pencil  and  say:  "Now  take  one  line  at  a  time, 
always  from  left  to  right  (passing  your  pencil  over  a 
line  or  two  in  this  direction)  and  cross  out  all  four  let- 
ters as  you  go  along.  Don't  go  back  to  cross  out  any  let- 
ters that  you  may  have  skipped.  Begin," 

Watch  him  for  the  first  line  and  call  his  attention  to 
every  error  made,  letters  skipped,  letters  crossed  out 
wrongly,  wrong  letters  crossed  out,  and  have  him  correct 
them.  Give  no  further  directions  after  this.  Record  the 
total  time  it  takes  him  for  the  sheet  (T)  and  the  total 
number  of  errors  (E),  counting  all  three  classes  togeth- 
er, including  any  he  may  have  corrected  by  your  direc- 
tion in  the  first  line.  Errors  corrected  by  himself  are 
not  counted. 

A  convenient  way  to  determine  the  number  of  errors 
made  is  to  count  the  number  of  letters  he  crosses  out 
correctly  while  he  works,  keeping  a  separate  count  of 
the  wrong  letters  that  he  crosses  out.  Then  subtraqjt 
the  number  he  crossed  out  correctly  from  fifty  and  add 
to  this  remainder  the  number  of  wrong  letters  he 
crossed  out. 

Scoring.     Passed  if    ~  +  5E  =  110,  or  less. 


138  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

4.  SIMPLE  ARITHMETICAL  PROBLEMS.      Show  the  child 
the  blank  for  this  test  for  a  few  seconds  and  say :  "Here 
are  a  number  of  simple  problems  in  adding,  subtracting, 
multiplying,  and  dividing.     I  want  to  see  how  fast  you 
can  do  them  all  and  write  the  correct  answer  after  each. 
In  dividing  you  put  down  the  fraction  left  over  as  well 
as  the  whole  number.    For  instance,  if  you  had  12-^5=, 
you  would  write  2^£."    Write  this  on  a  piece  of  paper  so 
he  can  watch  you  as  you  give  the  illustration.) 

Then  give  him  the  blank  and  say :  "Now  begin  at  the 
top  and  take  one  after  the  other  down.  Be  sure  to  get 
each  one  correct." 

Record  the  total  time  (T)  for  the  test.  Use  the  card 
furnished  with  the  testing  materials  giving  the  correct 
answers.  Place  the  edge  of  this  card  alongside  the  col- 
umn of  problems,  and  count  the  total  number  of  mistakes 
made  (E). 

Scoring    Passed  if    j    +  10E  —  140,  or  less. 

5.  GIVING  WORD  OPPOSITES.     With  the  card  for  this 
test   in   your   hand   in   inverted   position,   say :   "I  have 
twenty  words  here.    I  am  going  to  see  how  fast  you  can 
begin  with  the  top  one  and  give  me  a  word  for  each 
word  you  see  here  that  means  just  the  opposite.     We 
will  try  it  first  with  these  five  words  on  this  card." 
Then  give  the  five  trial  words,  using  them  in  any  way 
necessary  to  make  plain  how  it  is  to  be  done.     He  is 
simply  to  pronounce  the  opposites  out  loud,  and  not  the 
words  on  the  card. 

Then  place  the  list  of  twenty  before  him,  face  down, 
and  say :  "Now,  we  will  try  these.  If  you  come  to  any 
word  for  which  you  cannot  find  an  opposite,  keep  on  try- 
ing until  I  say  'Next/  and  then  go  on  to  the  next  word 
at  once.  (Allow  ten  seconds  for  any  such  word). 
Ready."  Then,  after  about  a  second,  turn  the  card  face 
up.  Follow  him  with  the  duplicate  list  of  words  supplied 
for  the  examiner.  Record  the  total  time  for  the  twenty 


AGE  TWELVE  YEARS  139 

words,  and  the  total  number  of  errors  (E),  counting  as 
errors  words  given  that  are  not  opposites,  and  words 
skipped  when  told  to  skip  by  the  examiner,  or  otherwise. 
Compute  the  average  time  for  a  word  (T)  by  dividing 
the  total  time  by  twenty,  counting  the  time  for  the  words 
skipped. 

Scoring.     Passed  if    30  (T  +  E)  =  195,  or  less. 

6.  IMMEDIATE  RECALL  OF  UNFAMILIAR  FORMS.  Place 
the  sheet  of  blank  circles  for  this  test  before  the  child, 
and  with  the  ten  cards  for  the  test  in  your  hand,  say : 
"Here  are  ten  cards,  each  with  a  circle  and  four  lines, 
like  this  (showing  a  card  in  the  middle  of  the  pack  for 
about  a  second,  and  in  inverted  position.).  I  will  show 
you  each  card  for  ten  seconds  and  you  will  then  at  once 
draw  the  four  lines  on  one  of  these  circles  (pointing  to 
the  sheet)  just  as  you  saw  them,  and  as  fast  as  you  can. 
Now,  it  will  make  it  much  easier  to  do  this  if  you  will 
remember  that  some  of  the  four  lines  are  inside  the  circle 
and  some  are  outside  (showing  these  points  on  a  card 
or  two  from  the  middle  of  the  pack,  as  before) ;  that  each 
line  touches  the  circle  exactly  on  a  dot,  or  exactly  half 
way  between  dots"  (showing  these  points  on  a  circle  on 
the  blank  before  him). 

Then  present  the  first  card,  face  down,  and  say :  "Here 
is  the  first  one.  Ready,"  turning  it  face  up  about  a 
second  later.  After  ten  seconds,  take  away  the  card,  and 
say:  "Now,  draw  on  this  circle,"  pointing  to  the  first 
blank  circle. 

Record  the  time  taken  to  draw  the  four  lines,  but  allow 
not  over  sixty  seconds.  Record  the  number  of  lines 
drawn  wrongly  plus  those  not  drawn  at  all,  and  not 
counting  errors  due  to  roughness  of  drawing  merely. 
Place  the  card  face  up  in  the  same  position  as  before 
while  you  record  the  errors,  so  he  may  see  the  mistakes 
he  made.  Use  the  remaining  cards  in  the  same  way. 
Compute  the  average  time  taken  to  draw  the  four  lines 
of  a  card  (T),  and  count  the  total  number  of  errors  for 


140  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAI,  TESTS 

the  ten  cards,  lines  drawn  wrongly  plus  lines  omitted  (E). 
Scoring.     Passed  if   7T  +  10E  —  205,  or  less. 

7.  FOLLOWING    DIRECTIONS    IN    A    CONFUSING    TEXT. 
Give  the  child  the  printed  sheet  for  this  test,  and  say: 
"Read  this  page,  paying  no  attention  to  the  sense  of  what 
you  read,  but  make  the  marks  and  fill  in  the  blanks  ac- 
cording to  the  directions  that  you  read,  as  fast  as  you  can. 
Read  the  first  part  out  loud  and  I  will  show  you  what  I 
mean."    Then  let  him  read  to  the  first  comma,  and  say : 
"Stop.     Now  do  that  first."     Give  him  plenty  of  time 
and  necessary  explanations  until  he  does  this  correctly. 
Then  say :  "Now,  read  on,"  and  let  him  read  to  ''Then  if 
Christmas ,"  and  call  "Stop.   Now,  do  that,"  and  pro- 
ceed as  before.     Then,  when  he  has  placed  this  comma 
•correctly,  say :    Now,  read  the  rest  to  yourself,  and  be 
sure  to  notice  exactly  what  it  tells  you  to  do,  and  then 
do  that.    The  point  is  not  to  let  it  get  you  mixed  up." 

Record  the  total  time  (T)  it  takes  to  finish  the  sheet 
from  the  point  where  he  begins  to  read  to  himself,  and 
the  total  number  of  errors  (E)  he  makes.  Count  errors 
he  makes  for  the  first  lines  that  he  read  out  loud,  if  any. 
Everything  not  exactly  according  to  directions,  or  omit- 
ted or  added,  is  counted  an  error.  Nothing  is  counted 
an  error  unless  it  positively  contradicts  directions. 

Scoring.   Passed  if  2  (  £  -f-  5E)  —  165,  or  less. 

8.  LOCATING  SECTIONS  OF  A  DIVIDED  SQUARE  FROM  DE- 
SCRIPTION.    Place  the  sheet  with  the  divided  square  for  this 
test  before  the  child  and  say :  "This  square,  you  notice,  is 
divided  into  upper  and  lower  halves  by  this  heavy  line, 
and  into  right  and  left  halves  by  this  heavy  line  (point- 
ing out  the  lines).     That  divides  the  whole  into  four 
quarters ;  upper  left  quarter  here,  lower  left  quarter  here, 
and  so  on.    Each  of  these  quarters  is  again  divided  into 
halves  and  quarters  by  these  lighter  lines  (pointing  out 
the  lines).    For  instance,  this  is  the  upper  left  quarter  of 
the  lower  right  quarter.    Is  that  right?    (Repeat  if  he  has 


AGE  THIRTEEN  TO  FIFTEEN  YEARS  14,1 

not  followed  you).  And  these  two  here  together  are 
the  right  half  of  the  lower  left  quarter.  Is  that  right? 
(Speak  slowly  and  give  plenty  of  time  for  him  to  foU 
low  you.) 

"Now,  I  am  going  to  see  how  fast  you  can  cross  out 
the  dot  that  is  in  the  middle  of  each  of  the  ten  sections 
described  on  this  card  (showing  the  card  for  a  second  or 
two).  We  will  take  the  three  on  this  other  card  first  to 
show  you  (placing  this  second  card  in  front  of  the  sheet 
with  the  divided  square).  Now,  the  easiest  way  to  do 
this  is  to  take  the  several  parts  of  each  line  backwards, 
last  part  first.  For  instance,  this  first  one  says:  (Read 
the  first  one).  Bait  you  take  the  last  part  first,  and  find 
first  the  lower  left  quarter  (pointing  to  this  part  of  the 
line)  of  the  whole  square.  Where  is  the  lower  left  quar- 
ter of  the  whole  square?  (Show  him  if  he  fails).  Now, 
notice  that  you  want  the  upper  right  quarter  of  this 
(pointing  to  this  part  of  the  line  on  the  card).  Now, 
which  dot  do  you  cross  out?" 

Give  any  further  explanation  necessary  to  make  sure 
that  he  understands  the  three  trials  on  this  card,  by  re- 
peating directions  and  by  showing  him  which  parts  are 
wanted. 

Then  replace  the  trial  card  with  the  other  having  the 
list  of  ten,  and  say  :  "Now,  see  how  fast  you  can  do  these 
ten,  one  after  the  other."  Each  time  he  crosses  out  a 
dot  call  the  next  number  for  him,  so  he  will  not  lose  his 
place  on  the  card. 

Follow  the  errors  with  the  "Key"  card,  record  the 
number  that  he  gets  wrong  (E)  and  the  total  time  for 
the  ten  trials  (T).  Errors  he  corrects  himself  are  not 
counted. 

Scoring.     Passed  if  1.3  (  ~    +  10E)  —  133,  or  less. 

AGE  THIRTEEN  TO  FIFTEEN  YEARS 
1.     SIMPLE    ARITHMETICAL    PROBLEMS.    (3)  -Show  the 
child  the  blank  for  this  test  for  a  few  seconds  and  say: 


142  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

"Here  are  a  number'  of  simple  problems  in  adding,  sub- 
tracting, multiplying  and  dividing.  I  want  to  see  how 
fast  you  can  do  them  all  and  write  the  correct  answer 
after  each.  In  dividing,  you  put  down  the  fraction  left 
over  as  well  as  the  whole  number.  For  instance,  if  you 
had  12  -f-  5  =  you  would  write  2^."  (Write  this  on  a 
piece  of  paper  so  he  can  watch  you  as  you  give  the  illus- 
tration.) 

Then  give  him  the  blank  and  say :  "Now,  begin  at  the 
top  and  take  one  after  the  other  down.  Be  sure  to  get 
each  one  correct/* 

Record  the  total  time  (T)  for  the  test.  Use  the  card 
furnished  with  the  testing  materials  giving  the  correct 
answers.  Place  the  edge  of  this  card  alongside  the  col- 
umn of  problems,  and  count  the  total  number  of  mistakes 
made  (E). 

Scoring.     Scores   required   for  passing  are  as   follows: 
Age  thirteen,    ^  +10E— 125,  or  less. 
"      fourteen          "        =112    "      " 
"     fifteen  "       =100    "      "^ 

2.  GIVING  WORD  OPPOSITES.  (4)  With  the  card  for 
this  test  in  your  hand  in  inverted  position,  say :  •  "I  have 
twenty  words  here.  I  am  going  to  see  how  fast  you  can 
begin  with  the  top  one  and  give  me  a  word  for  each  word 
you  see  here  that  means  just  the  opposite.  We  will 
try  it  first  with  these  five  words  on  this  card."  Then 
give  him  the  five  trial  words,  using  them  in  any  way 
necessary  to  make  plain  how  it  is  to  be  done.  He  is 
simply  to  pronounce  the  opposites  out  loud,  and  not  the 
words  on  the  card. 

Then  place  the  list  of  twenty  before  him,  face  down, 
and  say :  "Now,  we  will  try  these.  If  you  come  to  any 
word  for  which  you  cannot  find  an  opposite,  keep  on 
trying  until  I  say  'Next,'  and  then  go  on  to  the  next  word 
at  once*  (Allow  ten  seconds  for  any  such  word). 
Ready."  Then,  after  about  a  second,  turn  the  card  face 


AGE  THIRTEEN  TO  FIFTEEN  YEARS  143 

up.  Follow  him  with  the  duplicate  list  of  words  supplied 
for  the  examiner.  Record  the  total  time  for  the  twenty 
wordvS,  and  the  total  number  of  errors  (E),  counting  as 
errors  words  that  are  not  opposites,  and  words  skipped 
when  told  to  skip  by  the  examiner,  or  otherwise.  Com- 
pute the  average  time  for  a  word  (T)  by  dividing  the 
total  time  by  twenty,  counting  the  time  for  the  words 
skipped. 

Scoring.     Scores  required  for  passing  are  as  follows : 

Age  thirteen,  30(T+E)=160,  or  less. 

"     fourteen,  "      =125,  "      " 

"     fifteen,  "      =100,  "      " 

3.  IMMEDIATE  RECALL  OF  UNFAMILIAR  FORMS.  (5) 
Place  the  sheet  of  blank  circles  for  this  test  before  the 
child,  and  with  the  ten  cards  for  the  test  in  your  hand, 
say:  "Here  are  ten  cards,  each  with  a  circle  and  four 
lines,  like  this  (showing  a  card  in  the  middle  of  the  pack, 
and  in  inverted  position).  I  will  show  you  each  card 
for  ten  seconds  and  you  will  then  at  once  draw  the  four 
lines  on  one  of  these  circles  (pointing  to  the  sheet)  just 
as  you  saw  them,  and  as  fast  as  you  can.  Now,  it  will 
make  it  much  easier  to  do  this  if  you  will  remember  that 
some  of  the  four  lines  are  inside  the  circle  and  some  are 
outside  (showing  these  points  on  a  card  or  two  from  the 
middle  of  the  pack,  as  before)  ;  that  each  line  touches 
the  circle  exactly  on  a  dot,  or  exactly  half  way  between 
dots"  (showing  these  points  on  a  circle  on  the  blank  be- 
fore him). 

Then  present  the  first  card,  face  down,  and  say :  "Here 
is  the  first  one,"  turning  it  face  up  about  a  second  later. 
After  ten  seconds,  take  away  the  card,  and  say :  "Now, 
draw  on  this  circle,"  pointing  to  the  first  blank  circle. 

Record  the  time  taken  to  draw  the  four  lines,  but  allow 
not  over  sixty  seconds.  Record  the  number  of  lines 
drawn  wrongly  plus  those  not  drawn  at  all,  and  not 
opujiting  errors  due  to  roughness  of  drawing  merely. 
Place  the  card  face  tip  in  the  same  position  as  before 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  W^HtAft  TI3ST4J 

while  you  record  the  errors,  so  he  may  see  the  mistakes 
he  made.  Use  the  remaining  cards  in  the  same  way. 
Compute  the  average  time  taken  to  draw  the  four  lines 
of  a  card  (T),  and  count  the  total  number  of  errors  for 
the  ten  cards,  lines  drawn  wrongly  plus  lines  omitted 
(E). 

Scoring.     Scores  required  for  passing  are  as  follows: 

Age  thirteen,  7T+10E=165,  or  less. 

"      fourteen         "        =  130    "      " 

"      fifteen  =100    "      " 

4.  FOLLOWING  DIRECTIONS  IN  CONFUSING  TICXT.  (6) 
Give  the  child  the  printed  sheet  for  this  test,  and  say : 
"Read  this  page,  paying  no  attention  to  the  sense  of  what 
you  read,  but  make  the  marks  and  fill  in  the  blanks  ac- 
cording to  the  directions  that  you  read,  as  fast  as  you  can. 
Read  the  first  part  out  loud  and  I  will  show  you  what 
I  mean."  Then  let  him  read  to  the  first  comma,  and  say : 
"Stop.  Now,  do  that  first/*  Give  him  plenty  of  time 
and  necessary  explanations  until  he  does  this  correctly. 
Then  say :  "Now,  read  on,"  and  let  him  read  to  "Then  if 
Christmas -,"  and  call  "Stop.  Now,  do  that,"  and  pro- 
ceed as  before.  Then,  when  he  has  placed  the  comma 
correctly,  say :  "Now,  read  the  rest  to  yourself,  and  be 
sure  to  notice  exactly  what  it  tells  you  to  do,  and  then  do 
that.  The  point  is  not  to  let  it  get  you  mixed  up." 

Record  the  time  (T)  it  takes  to  finish  the  sheet  from 
the  point  where  he  begins  to  read  to  himself,  and  the 
total  number  of  errors  (E)  he  makes.  Count  errors  he 
makes  for  the  first  lines  that  he  read  out  loud,  if  any. 
Everything  not  exactly  according  to  directions,  or  omit- 
ted or  added,  is  counted  an  error.  Nothing  is  counted  an 
error  unless  it  positively  contradicts  directions. 

Scoring.     Scores  required  for  passing  are  as  follows: 

Age  thirteen,  2(   I  +5E)=140,  or  less 

"      fourteen  "        =120    "      " 

"      fifteen  "         =100    "      " 


ACE  THIRTEEN  TO  FIFTEEN  YEARS.  145 

5.  LOCATING  SECTIONS  OF  A  SQUARE  FROM  DESCRIPTION. 
(7).  Place  the  sheet  with  the  divided  square  for  this 
test  before  the  child  and  say :  "This  square,  you  notice, 
is  divided  into  upper  and  lower  halves  by  this  heavy 
line,  and  into  right  and  left  halves  by  this  heavy  line 
(pointing  out  the  lines).  That  divides  the  whole 
into  four  quarters;  upper  left  quarter  here,  lower  right 
quarter  here,  and  so  on.  Each  of  these  quarters  is  again 
divided  into  halves  and  quarters  by  these  lighter  lines 
(pointing  out  the  lines).  For  instance,  this  is  the  upper 
left  quarter  of  the  lower  right  quarter.  Is  that  right? 
(Repeat  if  he  has  not  followed  you).  And  these  two  here 
together  are  the  right  half  of  the  lower  left  quarter.  Is 
that  right?"  (Speak  slowly  and  give  plenty  of  time  for 
him  to  follow  you). 

"Now,  I  am  going  to  see  how  fast  you  can  cross  out 
the  dot  that  is  in  the  middle  of  each  of  the  ten  sections 
described  on  this  card  (showing  the  card  for  a  second  or 
two).  We  will  take  the  three  on  this  other  card  first  to 
show  you  (placing  this  second  card  in  front  of  the  sheet 
with  the  divided  square).  Now,  the  easiest  way  to  do 
this  is  to  take  the  several  parts  of  each  line  backwards, 
last  part  first.  For  instance,  this  first  one  says:  (Read 
the  first  one).  But  you  take  the  last  part  first,  and  find 
first  the  lower  left  quarter  (pointing  to  this  part  of  the 
line)  of  the  whole  square.  Where  is  the  lower  left  quar- 
ter of  the  whole  square?  (Show  him  if  he  fails).  Now, 
notice  that  you  want  the  upper  right  quarter  of  this 
(pointing  to  this  part  of  the  line  on  the  card).  Now, 
which  dot  do  you  cross  out?" 

Give  any  further  explanation  necessary  to  make  sure 
that  he  understands  the  three  trials  on  this  card,  by  re- 
peating directions  and  by  showing  him  which  parts  are 
wanted. 

Then  replace  the  trial  card  with  the  other  having  the 
list  of  ten,  and  say :  "Now,  see  how  fast  you  can  do  these 
ten,  one  after  the  other."  Each  time  he  crosses  out  a  dot, 


146  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

call  the  next  number  for  him,  so  he  will  not  lose  his  place 
on  the  card. 

Follow  the  errors  with  the  "key"  card,  record  the  num- 
ber that  he  gets  wrong  (E)  and  the  total  time  for  the 
ten  trials  (T).  Errors  he  corrects  himself  are  not 
counted. 

Scoring.     Scores  required  for  passing  are  as  follows : 
Age  thirteen,  1.3(  ~  +  10E)=118,  or  less. 
"      fourteen  =108  "      " 

"     fifteen  =100  "      " 

6  DRAWING  TRIANGLES  ON  A  SQUARE  ACCORDING  TO 
DIRECTIONS.  (8)  Place  a  sheet  of  blank  squares  for  this 
test  before  the  child  and  say :  "On  each  of  the  squares 
you  have  there  you  are  to  draw  a  triangle  according  to 
the  description  given  on  one  of  these  cards  (holding  the 
pack  of  cards  in  your  hand).  I  will  draw  the  triangle 
for  this  card  first  to  show  you." 

Then  on  a  blank  square  of  another  sheet  draw  the  tri- 
angle for  "Trial  card  E,"  reading  the  description  aloud 
for  each  part,  having  placed  the  card  so  he  can  read  it 
at  the  same  time.  Mark  each  part  on  the  square  as  you 
proceed,  a  check  mark  where  the  corner  of  the  triangle 
is  to  be,  a  short  line  through  the  point  on  the  square 
where  the  side  of  the  triangle  is  to  go  through,  and  a 
short  line  outside  the  square  touching  its  corner  at  the 
line's  middle.  As  you  read  each  part  of  the  card,  explain 
as  follows:  "Now,  we  will  put  a  check  mark  like  this, 
here,  so  we  will  remember  that  a  corner  of  the  triangle 
is  to  go  there,"  for  the  first  part,  and,  "We  will  put  a 
short  line  through  here  to  show  that  a  side  of  the  triangle 
is  to  go  through  here,"  for  the  second  part,  and,  "We  will 
mark  this  with  a  line  like  this  to  show  that  a  second  side 
of  the  triangle  is  to  run  by  and  touch  this  corner  of  the 
square,"  for  the  third  part.  "Now,  do  you  see  how  the 
triangle  will  be?  It  will  be  like  this."  Then  draw  the 
triangle,  making  the  sides  longer  than  necessary,  and 
have  them  cross  at  the  corners  of  the  triangle. 


AGE  THIRTEEN  TO  FIFTEEN  YEARS  147 

Then  repeat  in  further  explanation :  "Now,  one  of  the 
corners  is  at  the  middle  of  the  upper  side  of  the  square, 
as  the  card  says.  See?  (pointing  at  the  card).  And  one 
of  the  sides  of  the  triangle  passes  through  the  lower  right 
corner  of  the  square,  as  the  card  says ;  and  a  second  side 
touches  the  lower  left  corner  of  the  square,  as  the  card 
says,"  pointing  to  the  description  on  the  card  each 
time. 

Then  give  "Trial  card  S"  and  say :  "Now,  you  take 
this  one  for  trial  first,  and  see  if  you  can  draw  the  triangle 
as  the  card  says.  It  won't  count."  Help  him,  if  neces- 
sary, to  get  it  correct,  and  be  sure  to  have  him  place  the 
preliminary  check  mark  and  short  lines  for  the  three 
parts,  as  was  done  in  the  illustration. 

Then  give  him  the  first  card  in  the  series  of  five  and 
say :  "Now,  see  how  fast  you  can  do  the  rest." 

Record  the  time  and  the  number  of  errors  for  each 
card,  an  error  being  a  side  or  a  corner  drawn  wrongly. 
The  terms  "touching  a  corner"  and  "passing  through"  a 
corner  or  side  are  to  be  taken  only  in  the  way  as  used  in 
the  illustration.  Compute  the  average  time  for  a  card 
(T),  and  the  total  number  of  errors  (E)  for  the  five  cards. 

Scoring.     Scores  required  for  passing  are  as  follows: 
Age  thirteen,  T+15E=:113,  or  less 
"      fourteen       «         =106    "       " 
"      fifteen  =100    "       " 

7.  DRAWING  UPRIGHT  FORMS  IN  INVERTED  POSITIONS. 
Give  the  child  a  sheet  with  the  large  blank  squares  for 
this  test,  and,  with  the  cards  for  the  test  in  your  hand, 
say :  "I  have  some  cards  here,  each  having  a  square  with 
lines  and  dots  inside,  something  like  this  one  (placing 
the  "Trial  card"  right  side  up  immediately  in  front  of 
the  sheet  with  the  blank  squares).  I  am  going  to  see 
how  fast  you  can  draw  the  lines  in  one  of  the  squares  you 
have  there,  not  the  way  they  are  on  the  card,  but  the 
way  they  would  be  if  the  card  were  turned  upside  down. 
We  will  try  it  with  this  one  first  for  two  minutes  (point- 


143  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

ing  to  the  trial  card)  and  you  may  turn  this  one  upside 
down  as  much  as  you  want  to,  to  see  how  the  line  will 
come.  (Explain  further  if  necessary).  The  other  cards 
you  will  always  leave  right  side  up." 

Then  give  him  the  two  minutes  with  the  trial  card, 
using  the  first  blank  square,  and  telling  him  when  the 
first  minute  is  up.  Immediately  after  the  two  minutes 
give  the  first  of  the  series  of  five  cards.  Record  the  time 
for  each  card,  and  the  number  of  lines  drawn  wrongly. 
A  line  with  either  one  or  both  ends  wrong  counts  for 
one  error.  In  recording  the  errors  for  each  card,  turn 
the  card  upside  down  and  check  off  the  lines  correctly 
drawn,  letting  him  see  his  errors  each  time.  Encourage 
by  noting  the  great  difficulty  of  the  task  set,  and  that 
no  high  degree  of  accuracy  is  expected.  Compute  the 
average  time  (T)  for  a  card,  and  the  total  number  of 
errors  (E)  for  the  five  cards. 

Scoring.     Scores  required  for  passing  are  as  follows: 
Age  thirteen,  ~f  10E— 190,  or  less. 
"      fourteen  =145     "      " 

"'    fifteen  =100    "       " 

8.  MAKING  LOGICAL  INFERENCES.  (10)  Give  the  child 
a  pencil  and  some  blank  paper,  and  with  the  cards  for 
this  test  in  your  hand,  say :  "On  each  of  these  cards  are 
two  statements  from  which  one,  and  only  one,  correct 
conclusion  can  be  drawn.  There  are  always  four  conclu- 
sions given  on  each  card,  but,  of  course,  only  one  of  them 
is  correct.  I  am  going  to  see  how  quickly  you  can  tell 
me  in  each  case  which  is  the  correct  one.  I  will  show 
you  first  with  this  card." 

Then  place  the  "Trial  card"  before  him,  read  it  to  him 
slowly,  and  then  say:  "Now,  this  does  not  mean  any- 
thing until  you  let  the  letters  stand  for  something.  Sup- 
pose we  let  them  stand  for  circles;  we  can  then  draw 
the  circles  and  see  how  it  will  come  out."  Then,  turn- 
ing to  the  trial  card,  continue :  "  'If  no  A  is  B'  means 
that  no  part  of  the  A  circle  is  in  the  B  circle,  like  this 


AGE  THIRTEEN  TO  FIFTEEN  YEARS  149 

(drawing  two  one-inch  circles  about  an  inch  apart,  and 
marking  them  A  and  B  on  their  circumferences).  Now 
"All  C  is  A"  means  that  all  the  C  circle  is  inside  the  A 
circle,  like  this"  (drawing  a  smaller  circle  entirely  inside 
the  A  circle,  and  marking  it  C).  Then  read  the  four  con- 
clusions on  the  card  about  C  and  B,  and  point  out  why 
the  first  three  are  wrong,  and  the  fourth  correct. 

Then  say :  "Now,  we  will  take  these  other  cards  one 
at  a  time,  and  you  may  draw  all  the  circles  you  want  to, 
or  as  few  as  you  need  to,  to  figure  out  in  each  case  as 
fast  as  you  can  which  one  of  the  conclusions  is  the  cor- 
rect one."  Then  give  him  the  cards  in  order.  Correct 
the  first  three  errors  made,  but  no  more,  as  it  might 
discourage  him.  Encourage. 

Record  the  time  for  each  card,  and  an  error  for  each 
wrong  conclusion  given,  counting  his  final  decision  only 
on  any  card,  if  he  changes  his  first  one.  Compute  the 
average  time  (T)  for  a  card  and  the  total  number  of 
cards  for  which  he  chooses  the  wrong  conclusion  (E). 

Scoring.     Scores  required  for  passing  are  as  follow* : 
Age  thirteen,  T+10E=125,  or  less. 
"      fourteen       "         =112     "      " 
"      fifteen          " 


CHAPTER  V 
COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS 

In  the  preceding  chapter  every  effort  has  been  made  to 
present  the  directions  for  giving  the  tests  and  for  scoring 
in  a  way  that  would  be  most  convenient  for  use  in  the  con- 
duct of  an  examination.  This  has  been  deemed  important. 
The  attention  of  the  examiner  should  be  left  as  free  as 
possible  for  the  control  of  the  subject  under  examination 
and  for  the  management  of  details  that  cannot  be  made 
automatic.  For  this  reason  only  the  essentials  in  the  direc- 
tions are  given  there.  In  the  present  chapter  are  collected 
various  comments  about  the  individual  tests  that  are  of 
interest  chiefly  to  the  student  of  mental  tests.  Occasional 
remarks  are  included,  however,  that  will  be  found  of  value 
to  the  examiner  as  such.  Half  or  more  of  the  remarks  made 
here  about  the  tests  in  the  original  1908  Binet-Simon  scale, 
and  which  are  retained  in  the  present  system,  are  condensed 
from  statements  made  by  the  authors  of  that  scale.  They 
are  included  here  without  further  references  or  quotations. 
No  attempt  is  made  here  to  summarize  all  the  views  and 
comments  of  the  various  writers  on  these  tests.  Such  a  pro- 
cedure would  take  us  quite  beyond  permissible  limits. 

The  tests  in  the  lowest  age-groups  of  the  scale,  all  below 
age-group  III,  are  only  roughly  standardized,  as  has  al- 
ready been  noted,  and  are  not  to  be  compared  in  this  respect 
with  the  others.  They  were  originally  arranged  in  these 
age-groups  chiefly  on  the  basis  of  a  very  careful  study  of 
observations  of  other  writers  on  the  mental  development  of 
children  during  this  age  period.  These  observations  make 
up  very  largely  in  detail  and  trustworthiness  what  they  lack 

150 


COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  151 

in  number. l  But  there  are  complicating  factors.  First, 
the  children  figuring  in  these  observations  were  very  prob- 
ably on  the  whole  above  average  in  mental  development. 
Second,  most  of  the  observations  made  on  mental  develop- 
ment during  this  period  are  of  activities  that  cannot  be 
reproduced  in  the  child  at  will  on  the  part  of  an  examiner. 
They  do  not  furnish  a  basis  for  a  test.  Third,  there  are 
many  degrees  of  readiness  with  which  children  of  these  ages 
will  respond  to  given  stimuli  and  situations.  A  given  re- 
sponse, made  spontaneously  and  observed  only  occasionally 
at  a  given  age,  is  not  likely  to  be  aroused  at  all  at  the  same 
age  under  test  conditions.  The  manner  of  giving  the  tests 
was  worked  out  first  in  trying  them  out  on  feeble-minded 
with  mental  ages  chiefly  below  four.  After  using 'them  on 
normal  children  a  number  of  changes  were  made  in  the  pro- 
cedure, and  a  group  for  the  age  of  eighteen  months  was 
added.  They  are  offered  here  now,  as  they  were  in  my 
previous  revision  of  the  Binet-Simon  scale,  not  as  closely 
comparable  in  accuracy  and  reliability  with  the  tests  of  the 
other  parts  of  the  scale,  but  simply  as  furnishing  a  better 
means  than  we  have  heretofore  had  for  judging  the  men- 
talities of  children  of  these  ages. 

Three  Months,  1.  Carrying  Hand  or  Object  to  Mouth. 
In  the  earliest  random  movements  of  the  arm  the  hands  fre- 
quently come  in  contact  with  the  mouth  by  chance.  From 
the  repetition  of  this  develops  the  ability  to  carry  tlie  hand 
to  the  mouth  at  will.  This  ability  rests  on  a  tactual  motor 
association,  and  is  acquired  earlier  than  the  ability  to  reach 
for  seen  objects. 

1.     The  observations -referred  to  here  will  be  found  chiefly  in  the  following: 

1'reyer,  W.  The  Mind  of  the  Child,  Part  1.  The  Senses  and  the  Witt. 
TI.  The  Development  of  the  Intellect.  Observations  Concerning  the 
l  Development  of  the  Human  Being  in  the  First  Three  Years  of  Life. 

rati*.  by  H.  W.  Brown.     New  York,  1909. 

IVToore,  Mrs.  K.  C.  The  Mental  Development  of  a  Child.  Pathological 
Review,  Monograph  Supplements,  1896. 

Shinn,  M.  W.  Notes  on  the  Development  of  a  Child.  Part  I.  1893-99. 
Part  II.  1907.  University  of  California  Publications  in  Education,  Vols.  I. 
and  IV. 

Major,  D.  R.  First  Steps  in  Mental  Growth.  A  Series  of  Studies  in  the 
Psychology  of  Infancy.  New  York,  1906. 

Dearborn,  G.  V.  N.  Moto-Sensory  Development.  Observations  on  the 
First  Three  Years  of  a  Child.  Baltimore,  1910, 


152  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

Three  Months,  2.  Reactions  to  Sudden  Sounds. 
Reactions  to  sudden  sounds  appear  during  the  first  week 
after  birth.  At  this  time  it  may  be  a  general  "starting"  over 
the  whole  body,  or  only  a  slight  quiver  of  the  eyelids. 
Its  character  varies  much  during  the  first  three  months,  both 
from  one  child  to  another,  and  with  the  same  child  at  dif- 
ferent times.  For  a  while  reactions  are  frequently  entirely 
absent.  They  increase  much  in  frequency  and  intensity,  and 
by  the  end  of  the  third  month  the  child  reacts  almost  in- 
variably with  a  wink  or  a  "start"  to  most  sudden  sounds. 
Later  this  reaction  disappears  again,  first  the  general  "start- 
ing," then  the  wink,  so  that  in  older  children  and  in  adults 
only  very  loud  and  unusual  sudden  noises  cause  this  reflex 
action.  The  important  characteristic  of  the  reaction  at  the 
age  of  three  months  is  its  intensity  and  the  readiness  with 
which  it  occurs. 

Three  Months,  3.  Binocular  Co-ordination.  The 
eyes  follow  a  moving  light  in  a  co-ordinated  manner  much 
of  the  time  soon  after  birth.  Towards  the  end  of  the  second 
month  inco-ordination  is  rare,  and  during  the  third  month 
it  is  seldom  observed  in  the  ordinary  range  of  eye  move- 
ments. The  eyes  of  the  one  or  two  months'  old  child,  how- 
ever, do  not  follow  a  light  as  far  as  later,  and  inco-ordina- 
lion  appears  readily  for  the  extreme  positions.  Also,  the 
younger  child  turns  the  head  with  the  eyes  more.  Turning 
the  eyes  independently  in  following  moving  objects  usually 
occurs  first  by  about  the  second  month. 

Three  Months,  4.  Turning  Eyes  to  Object  in  Mar- 
ginal Field  of  Vision.  Following  a  moving  light  placed 
directly  before  the  eyes  and  then  moved  away  occurs  more 
readily  than  turning  towards  a  light  brought  into  the  field 
of  vision.  The  first  step  in  visual  development  consists  of 
staring  at  an  object  on  which  the  eyes  fall  by  chance.  This 
occurs  occasionally  at  once  after  birth.  Turning  the  head 
and  eyes  toward  an  object  in  the  marginal  field  of  vision  is 
the  next  step.  This  occurs  sometimes  as  early  as  the  first 
week  and  develops  rather  gradually  as  a  reflex,  which 


COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  153 

later  is  readily  inhibited.     At  the  end  of'  three  months  this 
reflex  is  well  developed  and  occurs  readily. 

Three  Months,  5.  Winking  at  an  Object  Threatening 
the  Byes.  A  sudden  approach  of  an  object  to  within  a 
few  inches  of  the  child's  face  rarely  causes  a  wink  during 
the  first  six  weeks.  This  reflex  appears  first  towards  the 
end  of  the  second  month,  and  increases  rather  rapidly  in 
frequency  and  readiness.  During  the  third  month  it  be- 
comes almost  invariable  and  remains  so  throughout  life. 
It  is  essential  that  the  object  used  be  large.  The  hand  alone, 
for  example,  may  not  cause  the  wink,  when  a  larger  object 
does  so  readily. 

Six  Months,  1.  Balancing  Head  and  Sitting.  Momen- 
tary balancing  of  the  head  occurs  during  the  third  month. 
Ability  to  hold  up  the  head  indefinitely  when  the  child  is 
held  in  the  vertical  position  develops  rapidly,  and  is  usually 
quite  well  established  before  the  end  of  the  fifth  month. 
Ability  to  sit  up  when  supported  in  the  back  appears  slightly 
later  than  the  ability  to  balance  the  head.  Children  six 
months  old  sit  up  momentarily  unsupported  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases,  and  can  do  so  indefinitely  before  the  end 
of  the  tenth  month. 

Six  Months,  2.  Turning  Head  Towards  Source  of  a 
Sound.  During  the  third  month  the  child  begins  to  turn 
the  head  on  hearing  a  sound.  This  turning  is  at  first  usual- 
ly not  accurate,  but  increases  in  frequency  and  readiness 
and  takes  on  the  character  of  a  real  searching,  as  if  the 
child  were  trying  to  see  the  object  making  the  sound.  By 
the  sixth  month  the  child  turns  the  head  readily  and  accu- 
rately towards  the  source  of  a  sound. 

Six  Months,  3.  Opposing  Thumb  in  Grasping.  The 
child  readily  clasps  objects  touching  its  palm  soon  after 
birth.  This  reflex  develops  rapidly  to  a  maximum  intensity 
and  later  decreases  again.  Co-operation  of  the  thumb,  how- 
ever, is  absent  in  this  early  clasping.  The  first  evidence  of 
opposition  of  the  thumb  seems  to  appear  during  the  fourth 
month.  This  may  be  noted  in  the  slight  resistance  met  when 


154  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

lifting  the  thumb  during  the  reflex  clasp.  This  resistance 
increases,  and  by  the  age  of  six  months  co-operation  of  the 
thumb  with  the  ringers  is  usually  well  developed. 

Six  Months,  4.  Prolonged  Holding  of  Object  Placed 
in  Hand.  As  a  reflex  the  clasping  of  an  object  usually  lasts 
only  a  few  seconds,  when  the  object  is  left  resting  passively 
in  the  child's  hand.  By  the  end  of  the  third  month  the  child 
begins  to  hold  on  to  objects  for  longer  periods.  At  the  age 
of  six  months  there  is  unquestionable  evidence  of  more  than 
the  original  reflex  clasping.  It  has  been  interpreted  as  con- 
scious voluntary  holding  of  objects. 

Six  Months,  5.  Reaching  for  Seen  Objects.  The 
sight  of  attractive  objects  begins  to  arouse  random  arm 
movements  by  the  end  of  the  fourth  month.  From  this  time 
the  child  learns  rather  rapidly  to  guide  the  hand  success- 
fully toward  the  seen  object.  By  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
month  he  seizes  readily  objects  reached  for. 

Twelve  Months,  1.  Sitting  and  Standing.  A  child 
one  year  old  nearly  always  can  sit  up  for  an  indefinite 
length  of  time  without  support.  He  learns  to  stand  unsup- 
ported for  a  few  seconds  slightly  later,  but  the  majority  do 
so  when  one  year  old. 

Twelve  Months,  2.  Speech.  Very  frequently  vocal 
responses  cannot  be  obtained  from  a  child  even  though  he 
is  accustomed  to  give  them  spontaneously  at  other  times. 
As  often  as  not  the  scoring  in  this  te^t  has  to  be  determined 
by  the  evidence  obtained  from  the  mother  or  nurse  alone. 
By  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  child's  speech  is  at  the  height 
of  the  babbling  stage.  The  earlier  individual  sounds  are 
largely  replaced  by  short  series  of  syllables.  About  the  same 
Hme  the  first  attempts  to  imitate  sounds  appear.  It  also 
usually  understands  a  few  words,  has  formed  the  associa- 
tions between  a  few  names  and  objects.  But  the  last  is 
difficult  to  determine  in  any  test. 

Twelve  Months,  3.  Imitation  of  Movements.  Satis- 
factory responses  in  this  test  depend  much  on  the  momen- 
tary inclination  and  disposition  of  the  child.  Many  children 


COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  155 

who  imitate  readily  cannot  be  made  to  do  so  in  a  test.  The 
child  begins  to  imitate  some  things  before  the  end  of  the 
first  year.  The  maximum  tendency  to  imitate  develops  con- 
siderably later. 

Twelve  Months,  4.  Marking  With  a  Pencil,  A  child 
will  often  imitate  the  movement  made  in  marking  without 
evidence  of  a  "purpose"  to  make  marks,  or  of  understand- 
ing that  the  pencil  makes  the  marks.  The  general  nature 
of  his  reactions  must  determine  whether  it  is  imitation  of  a 
movement  merely,  or  an  effort  to  make  marks.  The  re- 
sponse is  scored  passed  only  if  the  latter  is  the  case.  This 
stage  in  drawing  or  writing  begins  about  the  end  of  the  first 
year.  Attempts  to  copy  forms  or  to  draw  them  spontane- 
ously appear  about  a  year  later. 

Twelve  Months,  5.  Recognition  of  Objects.  The 
child  probably  recognizes  a  number  of  things  before  this 
age,  but  unequivocal  expressions  of  recognition  do  not  ap- 
pear much  before  the  end  of  the  first  year,  and  develops 
rather  rapidly  from  this  time  on.  By  the  time  he  names 
any  object  the  process  is  already  well  advanced.  It  is  a 
significant  point  in  mental  development,  but  is  difficult  to 
determine  in  its  early  stages  by  any  tests. 

Eighteen  Months,  2.  Feeding  With  a  Spoon  or  Fork. 
Inasmuch  as  it  is  usually  inconvenient  to  try  "a"  or  "b"  of 
this  test,  the  information  obtained  from  the  parent  or  nurse 
may  be  taken  instead,  but  special  caution  is  necessary  here, 
against  accepting  affirmative  statements  merely,  from  a 
parent. 

Eighteen  Months,  3.  Speech.  Parents  frequently 
wrongly  interpret  various  vocalizations  of  a  child  as  distinct 
words,  or  efforts  to  use  such  words,  as  well  as  accept  evi- 
dence that  a  child  understands  a  question,  when  such  evi- 
dence is  not  at  all  conclusive.  In  "c"  of  this  test  the  parent 
should  be  required  to  give  reasonable  proof  of  affirmative 
statements. 

Eighteen  Months,  4.  Spitting  Out  Solids.  The  test 
fails  more  or  less  frequently  with  bread  and  vinegar,  but  it 


156  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

is  not  practical  to  try  a  variety  of  different  substances.  Fail- 
ure of  the  test  consists  in  no  reaction  at  all  made  by  the 
child,  or  swallowing  the  bread.  Neither  can  be  interpreted 
either  as  a  pass  or  a  failure  for  the  child. 

Eighteen  Months,  5.  Recognition  of  Objects  in  Pic- 
tures. The  recognition  of  objects  in  pictures  follows  closely 
the  recognition  of  the  objects  themselves  in  mental  develop- 
ment. In  both,  however,  the  signs  of  recognition  in  the 
child's  reactions  are  somewhat  difficult  to  interpret.  Usually 
the  parent  is  incapable  of  doing  so  correctly.  It  requires 
some  considerable  experience  on  the  part  of  the  examiner. 

II  1.  Pointing  Out  Objects  in  Pictures.  Frequent  in- 
stances of  feeble-minded  children  failing  to  pass  the  picture 
test  that  calls  for  enumeration  of  objects  in  the  picture  when 
they  readily  pointed  out  objects  in  the  picture  in  response 

to  the  command  "Show  me  the ,"  suggested  this  test  for 

this  age-group.  From  the  standpoint  of  discriminative 
capacity  'and  applicability  it  seems  to  be  a  very  good  test. 
There  is  a  considerable  tendency  to  point  at  random  at  the 
card  to  every  question.  Such  responses,  when  the  child  is 
evidently  merely  not  attending,  are  not  counted.  The  object 
is  to  determine  whether  he  can  understand  and  point  out 
correctly  when  his  attention  is  good. 

II  2.  Imitation  of  Simple  Movements.  This  test  and  its 
location  in  the  scale  was  taken  from  the  Binet-Simon  1905 
series.  Urging  in  the  test  is  often  necessary,  because  of 
timidity  or  disinclination.  The  trials  should  be  repeated  if 
responses  are  not  obtained  at  once,  in  varied  forms  if  neces- 
sary, until  the  cause  of  the  failure  to  respond  correctly  be- 
comes evident. 

II  3.  Obeying  Simple  Commands.  This  test  is  a 
modification  of  one  in  the  Binet-Simon  1905  series.  As  in 
test  II  2,  urging  is  often  necessary.  If  the  mother's  state- 
ments are  accepted  as  evidence,  instances  in  which  the  child 
actually  carries  out  a  command  alone  should  be  considered, 
ruling  out  a  mere  affirmation  that  the  child  is  capable  or  that 
he  attempts  to  do  things  on  command. 


COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  157 

« 

II  4.  Copying  a  Circle.  Like  test  I  4,  marking  with  a 
pencil,  this  one  was  suggested  by  'the  tests  on  copying  a 
square,  and  a  diamond,  used  higher  in  the  scale.  The  circle 
is  psychologically  'the  simplest  of  all  geometrical  forms,  and 
is  the  first  the  child  learns  to  make. 

II  5.     Removal  of  Wrapping  From  Food  before  Eating. 
Used  in  the  Binet- Simon  1905  series,  with  slightly  different 
procedure. 

III  1.     Enumeration  of  Objects  in  a  Picture.    Original 
Binet-Simon  test  from  the  1908  scale.     The  authors  used 
colored  pictures.    Terman's  standardization  of  this  test  using 
pictures  in  black  and  white. showed  that  the  colors  are  not 
essential.     The  authors'  pictures   were  somewhat  unsatis- 
factory for  the  test  in  this  age-group,  as  they  did  not  contain 
sufficient  details  familiar  to  three-year-old  children  to  call 
forth  enumeration.    The  same  is  true  in  a  lesser  degree  of 
the  pictures  used  by  Terman.     Both  Binet-Simon  and  Ter- 
man  used  these  pictures  in  two  other  higher  age  tests,  call- 
ing for  description  and  interpretation,  respectively,  and  both 
the    original    pictures   and    Terman's    substitutes    are   well 
adapted  for  testing  the  capacity  to  interpret.    In  the  present 
scale  the  pictures  used  were  especially  drawn  to  meet  only 
the  requirements  for  the  test  on  the  ability  to  enumerate  and 
the  ability  to  describe.  *     No  test  on  ability  to  interpret  is 
used  in  the  scale. 

The  child's  reactions  to  pictures  develop  through  a  num- 
ber of  distinct  stages.  For  several  of  these  simple  and  brief 
tests  are  sufficient  to  determine  whether  he  has  reached  a 
stage  in  question.  These  are  as  follows:  (a)  Recognition 
of  objects  in  pictures,  (b)  Name  associated  with  the  ob- 
ject in  a  picture  and  ability  to  point  out  the  object  in  the 
picture  when  named  to  him.  (c)  Ability  to  give  the  names 
of  objects  in  a  picture;  enumeration,  (d)  Ability  to  see 
simple  relations  and  to  in  part  describe  the  picture,  (e) 

1.  The  writer  is  indebted  to  Miss  Margaret  Wittman,  teacher  in  the  Minne- 
sota School  for  Feeble-Minded,  for  the  original  drawings  of  these  pictures, 
made  with  the  aid  of  a  general  description  of  the  subjects,  and  the  details  that 
to  go  into  each. 


158  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAI,  TESTS 

• 

Ability  to  interpret  the  meaning  of  a  picture.  The  object  of 
the  present  test  is  to  determine  whether  the  child  is  able  to 
name  things  seen  in  a  picture. 

Ill  2.  Pointing  Out  Parts  of  Body.  Original  Binet- 
Simon  test  from  1908  scale,  with  the  last  part,  "Show  me 
your  hair,"  added.  The  test  is  largely  one  of  language  com- 
prehension in  one  of  its  early  stages.  The  child  first  under- 
stands only  our  gestures.  Next  he  learns  to  repeat  roughly 
a  few  sounds  and  words  spoken  to  him,  and  soon  after  learns 
the  meaning  of  a  few.  Lastly,  he  learns  to  use  words  as  a 
means  of  communication.  This  test  involves  next  to  the  last 
of  these  stages,  in  connection  with  a  discrimination  of  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body. 

Ill  3.  Gilding  the  Family  Name.  Original  Binet- Simon 
test  from  the  1908  scale.  Nearly  every  child  of  three  knows 
his  first  name.  If  he  gives  this,  it  may  be  taken  as  good  evi- 
dence that  failure  to  give  his  last  name  is  not  due  to  timidity 
or  disinclination.  Names  difficult  to  pronounce  do  not 
usually  disincline  the  child  to  make  an  effort.  He  will  give 
some  recognizable  substitute. 

Ill  4.  Repetition  of  a  Sentence  of  Six  Syllables.  Re- 
peating a  sentence  of  six  syllables  was  a  Binet-Simon  1908 
test,  but  the  authors  suggested  the  use  of  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent sentences,  without  giving  a  definite  method  of  pro- 
cedure. The  present  writer  substituted  the  first  two  sen- 
tences used  here  in  his  1912  revision,  keeping  one  of  the 
originals.  In  the  present  revision  this  last  one  is  dropped 
for  one  used  by  Terman.  Experience  with  this  kind  of  test 
has  shown  that  the  exact  nature  and  content  of  the  sentence 
used  is,  within  limits,  about  as  important  as  its  length.  This 
is  especially  true  for  young  children. 

Imperfect  pronunciation  characteristic  of  this  age  some- 
times make  it  difficult  to  judge  whether  the  child's  repetition 
is  correct  word  for  word  or  not.  But  if  he  uses  the  correct 
number  of  words  with  only  one  or  two  unintelligible,  the 
repetition  may  be  regarded  as  satisfactory.  Substitutions  of 
other  words  of  his  own  for  those  read  to  him  belong  to  a 


COMMENTS  ON  THE:  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  159 

much  later  stage  of  development.  A  frequent  form  of  fail- 
ure consists  of  repeating  only  a  few  of  the  important  words 
of  the  sentence,  such  as  "Dog,  cat,"  or  "[fen  on  nest.'' 

Ill  5.  Naming  of  Familiar  Objects.  This  was  given  in 
age-group  IV  in  the  Binet-Simon  1908  scale,  using  only  a 
key,  closed  pen-knife,  and  a  sou,  all  of  which  had  to  be 
named  correctly.  The  present  writer  added,  "Watch,  ball 
and  pencil,"  and  required  four  out  of  six  to  be  named  cor- 
rectly in  his  1912  revision.  Tcrman  uses  this  list,  omitting 
the  ball  and  requiring  three  of  the  five  to  be  named  correct- 
ly. He  places  it  in  age-group  III. 

"Money"  for  penny,  and  "Clock"  for  the  watch  are  ac- 
cepted as  satisfactory.  The  object  of  this  test  is  to  find 
whether  he  can  name  these  particular  things,  which  is  dif- 
ferent from  naming  some  of  the  things  seen  in  a  picture. 

Ill  6.  Repeating  Two  Numerals.  Original  Binet-Simon 
1908  test,  in  the  same  form  as  given  here.  Numerals  are 
more  difficult  to  repeat  than  are  words  making  a  sentence, 
just  as  words  are  more  difficult  to  repeat  when  they  make 
no  sentence.  Hence,  a  child  that  repeats  a  sentence  of  six 
syllables  may  readily  fail  in  repeating  only  three  numerals. 
A  frequent  failure  consists  in  repeating  only  the  last  of  the 
two  numerals,  there  being  a  general  tendency  on  the  part  of 
children  to  repeat  only  the  last  word  or  part  in  any  test 
similar  to  this. 

Ill  7.  Naming  Pictures  From  Memory.  A  new  test. 
This  is  the  simplest  form  of  a  memory  test  involving  active 
recall.  The  three-year-old  child's  ability  to  pass  it  depends, 
first,  on  the  fact  that  the  pictures  have  been  carefully  chosen 
so  as  to  include  only  objects  most  likely  to  be  familiar  to 
the  child;  second,  on  the  compulsory  attention  in  making 
the  child  name  them  over  twice;  third,  on  the  immediacy 
of  the  recall;  and,  fourth,  on  the  fact  that  two  of  the  three 
pictures  remain  before  him,  and  help  to  suggest  the  missing 
one.  At  this  age  the  child  has  a  very  limited  ability  to  con- 
trol his  mental  imagery  in  the  manner  required  in  active, 
voluntary  recall,  such  as  the  adult  knows  it.  Evidence  of 


160  A  HANDBOOK  or  MENTAL  TESTS 

this  appears  incidentally  in  the  test  in  the  fact  that  very 
frequently  in  the  second  or  third  'trial  the  child  will  name 
a  picture  shown  in  a  preceding  trial  for  the  one  taken  away. 

III  8.     Tracing  a  Square.     A  new  test.     Marking  with 
a  pencil  (12  months  4),  copying  a  circle  (II  4),  tracing  a 
square  (III  8),  tracing  an  irregular  form  (IV  5),  copying 
a  square  (V  2),  and  copying  a  diamond  (VII  8)  are  similar 
tests,  viewed  objectively.     But  the  increasing  difficulty  they 
present,  as  shown  by  the  different  ages  at  which  they  are 
placed,  undoubtedly  means  that  they  involve  entirely  differ- 
ent mental  processes  for  the  child. 

The  illustration  given  the  child  by  the  examiner  is  im- 
portant, and  special  care  should  be  taken  to  give  it  exactly 
as  stated.  The  child  probably  in  some  measure  imitates  the 
rate,  and  the  more  "deliberation"  shown  by  the  examiner 
the  more  will  be  invoked  in  -the  child.  The  majority  of 
children  of  this  age  do  not  understand  the  verbal  directions 
of  this  test  at  all  if  unaccompanied  by  the  illustration. 

IV  1.     Giving  Sex.     Original    Binet-Simon    1908   test. 
Tennan  uses  it  in  age-group  III.  The  difference  in  the  form 
of  the  question  for  boys  and  girls  is  necessary  because  of 
the  tendency  of  children  to  repeat  the  last  part  of  any  re- 
mark made  to  them  in  all  such  questions. 

IV  2.  Repetition  of  Three  Numerals.  Original  Binet- 
Simon  1908  test,  which  does  not  give  the  numerals  to  be 
used.  Ternian  uses  it  in  age-group  III  as  an  alternative 
test,  and  requires  the  repetition  to  be  in  correct  order  as  well 
as  giving  the  correct  numerals.  In  the  repetition  of  numer- 
als, especially  for  longer  series  used  with  older  children,  the 
response  is  often  correct  except  that  the  order  is  changed. 
It  is  difficult  to  say  what  this  change  in  order  is  due  to.  It 
is  not  necessarily  on  account  of  lack  of  memory. 

IV  3.  Comparison  of  Tivo  Lines.  Original  Binet- 
Simon  1908  test.  The  authors  suggest  only  one  trial,  and 
their  procedure  is  somewhat  different.  The  procedure  given 
here  is  the  same  as  in  my  1912  revision,  which  is  slightly 
modified  by  Terman. 


COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  161 

Failure  in  this  test  is  often  due  to  inability  to  understand 
the  task  rather  than  to  inability  to  see  the  difference  be- 
tween the  two  lines,  or  to  make  the  comparison.  The  form 
of  the  question  used  here  is  regarded  as  better  than  the 
question,  "Which  is  the  longer  of  these  two  lines?"  The 
four-year-old  child  often  does  not  understand  the  word 
"lines."  A  frequent  form  of  failure  consists  of  pointing 
indiscriminately  at  any  part  of  the  card.  In  such  cases  it  is 
often  difficult  to  determine  whether  the  failure  is  due  to 
the  carelessness  in  pointing  out,  or  to  inability.  Further 
trials,  with  variations  in  the  procedure,  must  decide.  Some- 
times the  command,  "Put  your  finger  on  the  big  one,"  is 
sufficient  in  such  cases. 

IV  4.  Discrimination  of  Forms.  A  new  test,  used  first 
in  my  1912  revision,  and  more  thoroughly  standardized  by 
Terman  in  1916. 

Failures  are  sometimes  due  to  inability  to  understand  the 
task,  but  more  frequently  to  inability  to  discriminate. 
Occasionally  a  child  will  persist  in  pointing  at  random  at 
any  form  at  once  without  effort  to  find  the  right  one.  In 
that  case  the  examiner  must  use  his  judgment  in  counting 
or  not  counting  such  choices  as  errors.  Such  instances  do 
not  occur  often. 

IV  5.  Tracing  Irregular  Form.  A  new  test.  The  form 
used  in  this  test  was  constructed  with  the  idea  of  getting  one 
that  would  combine  movements  of  different  lengths  in  all 
directions  with  changes  in  direction  at  different  angles.  The 
passing  score  is  rather  low.  The  test  could  probably  be  used 
in  higher  age-groups  with  the  requirement  of  a  better  score. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  do  the  tracing  in  the  illustration 
given  the  child  at  the  right  rate,  as  this  will  influence  the 
rate  at  which  the  child  will  try  to  do  it.  Many  four-year- 
old  children  do  not  understand  the  verbal  directions  at" all  in 
this  test,  when  given  without  the  illustration. 


162  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

IV  6.  Recognition  of  Forms.  A  new  test.  The  forms 
used  here  were  copied  from  a  study  made  by  Simpson.1  The 
task  set  the  child  in  the  present  test  is,  however,  entirely 
different.  On  first  consideration  the  test  is  likely  to  seem 
entirely  too  difficult  for  four-year-old  children.  But  the 
processes  involved  are  those  of  recognition,  which  are  pas- 
sive, do  not  require  voluntary  control,  while  those  of  recall 
are  active.  Also,  the  cards  are  all  quite  different  from  each 
other,  and  not  too  numerous,  militating  against  easy  con- 
fusion. 

IV  7.  Comprehension.  The  test  as  it  stands  is  taken 
from  Terman.  The  first  two  questions  used  were  given  in 
the  Binet-Simon  1905  series,  to  which  Terman  added  the 
third.  He  notes  that:  "The  purpose  of  these  questions  is 
to  ascertain  whether  the  child  can  comprehend  the  situations 
suggested  and  give  a  reasonably  pertinent  reply.  The  first 
requirement,  of  course,  is  to  understand  the  language;  the 
second  is  to  tell  how  the  situation  suggested  should  be  met.'' 

IV  8.     Naming  Pictures  From  Memory.     A  new  test. 
Although  identical  with1  III  7,  excepting  that  four  instead 
of  three  pictures  are  used  in  each  trial,  this  test  is  consider- 
ably more  difficult  for  children,  and  would  be  entirely  too 
difficult  for  four-year-old  and  probably  even  for  five-year- 
old  children,  if  only  one  more  picture  were  added.     The 
reason  for  this  has  not  appeared  in  any  analysis  so  far  made. 
The  pictures  used  have  been  selected  with  considerable  care. 
It  is  necessary  to  get  a  series  of  objects  familiar  to  children 
of  this  age,  and  which  they  can  readily  name.    The  list  from 
which  one  can  choose  for  this  age  is  not  very  large. 

V  1.     Counting  Four  Pennies.     An  original  Binet-Simon 
1908  test,  used  here  in  the  same  form.     Terman  places  it 
in  age-group  IV. 

The  child  learns  to  count  before  he  can  apply  the  counting 
process  to  objects,  that  is,  before  he  can  count  correctly  a 
group  of  objects.  The  former  soon  becomes  quite  mechani- 

1.  Simpson,  B.  R.  Correlation  of  Mental  Abilities.  Teacher*  College, 
Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education.  No.  53.  1912. 


COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  163 

cal,  but  the  latter  requires  some  control  of  this  mechanical 
process.  Counting  a  group  of  objects,  again,  is  easier  than 
counting  a  series  of  successive  stimuli,  whether  they  be 
objects  seen  or  a  series  of  sounds.  Finally,  the  greatest 
degree  of  control  of  the  counting  process  is  required  in 
counting  a  series  that  is  irregular,  such  as  a  series  of  sounds 
coming  at  irregular  intervals. 

V  2.  Copying  a  Square.  A  Binet- Simon  1908  test. 
The  authors  deem  it  important  that  the  child  draw  with  a 
pen  instead  of  with  a  pencil.  No  statistical  study  has  been 
made  comparing  the  two  methods.  From  the  writer's  gen- 
eral experience  it  seems  that 'it  does  not  matter  essentially 
whether  pen  or  pencil  is  used.  However,  the  original  pro- 
cedure is  adhered  to  here.  The  authors  do  not  indicate  the 
number  of  trials  to  be  given  or  the  number  of  successful 
trials  to  be  required  for  passing.  Terman  substitutes  a 
pencil  for  the  pen,  and  places  the  test  in  age-group  IV. 

V  3.  Comparison  of  Weights.  An  original  Binet- 
Simon  test,  but  the  procedure  here  is  considerably  modified. 
The  authors  used  two  pairs  of  weights  of  3  and  12,  and  6 
and  15  grams,  respectively.  A  pair  was  placed  before  the 
child  and  he  was  asked  to  tell  which  was  the  heavier,  with- 
out the  lifting  being  illustrated.  The  two  weights  used  in 
the  present  test  are  6  and  24  grams.  Terman  uses  weights  of 
3  and  15  grams,  with  a  procedure  essentially  the  same  as 
given  in  the  present  test,  except  that  he  requires  two  out 
of  three  trials  for  a  pass.  It  appears  that  the  weights  may 
vary  considerably  both  in  relative  and  in  absolute  weight 
without  affecting  the  result  materially.  As  in  some  other 
tests,  failure  in  this  one  is  often  due  to  inability  to  under- 
stand the  task  rather  than  to  inability  to  discriminate  the 
weights.  The  procedure  given  here  should  be  very  care- 
fully followed,  making  sure  to  have  the  attention  of  the  child 
at  all  times.  Under  the  exact  conditions  of  the  test,  the 
ability  to  understand  the  task  is  made  a  part  of  -the  test. 
Common  failures  are  giving  the  right-hand  or  left-hand 
weight  each  time,  or  giving  both.  The  child  understands 


164  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

that  he  is  to  "give,"  as  in  other  tests  he  understands  that 
he  is  to  "show"  or  (<point  out"  something,  but  does  not 
comprehend  the  rest. 

V  4.  Making  Rectangle  With  Two  Triangles.  A  Binet- 
Simon  1908  test,  given  here  with  practically  the  same  pro- 
cedure, except  that  three  trials  are  given  in  place  of  one, 
which  seems,  however,  to  give  but  little  different  results. 
A  change  in  the  positions  of  the  cards  from  those  described 
changes  the  test  entirely.  It  can  be  made  very  much  easier, 
or  very  much  more  difficult  in  this  way.  The  examiner 
should,  therefore,  make  sure  that  he  is  giving  the  test  exactly 
as  described.  It  is  considered  a  trial  in  this  test  if  the  child 
moves  the  pieces  about  and  then  leaves  them  in  any  position. 
There  is  sometimes  little  or  no  evidence  as  to  whether  the 
child  regards  his  effort  as  successful  or  not.  In  the  great 
majority  of  cases  the  second  and  third  trials  are  at  once 
successful  if  the  first  one  has  been.  The  understanding 
of  the  task  is  a  prominent  part  of  the  test. 

V  5.  Repetition  of  a  Sentence  of  Ten  Words.  The 
Binet-Simon  1908  test  used  a  sentence  of  sixteen  syllables, 
which  made  it  entirely  too  difficult  for  this  age.  The  authors' 
1911  revision  substituted  a  sentence  with  ten  syllables.  The 
first  sentence  used  here  is  taken  from  the  Binet-Simon  tests, 
the  third  from  Terman,  and  the  second  is  supplied  by  the 
writer.  Terman  gives  the  test  in  age-group  IV,  as  an  alter- 
native test,  using  three  sentences  and  requiring  one  correct 
repetition  for  a  pass. 

V  6.  Definitions  According  to  Use  of  Objects.  A 
Binet-Simon  1908  test  for  age-group  VI,  using  the  word 
"mama"  for  "pencil"  of  the  present  test.  The  authors  re- 
quired three  responses  to  be  correct  out  of  the  five  trials. 
Terman  requires  four  correct  out  of  six,  the  words  used 
being  "Chair,  horse,  fork,  doll,  pencil  and  table,"  and  the 
test  is  placed  in  age-group  V. 

A  child  much  brighter  than  a  normal  five  or  six-year-old 
may  refuse  to  respond  because  the  task  seems  too  simple 
and  childish  to  him.  On  the  whole  the  responses  may  be 


COMMENTS  OK  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS          165 

grouped  into  three  classes,  (a)  Silence,  or  simple  repetition, 
as  "A  fork  is  a  fork,"  or  poorer  yet,  merely  "Fork."  (b) 
Definitions  in  terms  of  use  alone,  as  "A  table  is  to  eat,"  "A 
horse  is  to  pull  wagons."  (c)  Definitions  better  than  in 
terms  of  use,  as,  "A  horse  is  an  animal  that  pulls  wagons," 
or,  '''A  horse  has  four  legs,  a  head  and  a  tail."  The  great 
majority  of  definitions  better  than  according  to  use  are 
descriptive  or  analytical  in  character.  The  logical  form  of 
definition  is  not  given  by  children  of  this  age,  and  but  rarely 
by  children  much  older. 

V  7.  Tapping  Blocks  in  Irregular  Order.  This  is  a 
modification  of  a  test  used  by  Knox  l  and  standardized  by 
Pintner,  2  who  used  a  series  of  this  kind  of  test  for  different 
higher  ages.  It  has  the  advantage  of  simplicity,  and  inde- 
pendence of  language  and  of  training.  The  adaptation  to 
this  age  was  made  by  Miss  Merrill. 

V  8.     Naming  the  Primary  Colors.     In  the  Binet-Simon 
1008  scale  this  was  placed  in  age-group  VIII,  where  it  was 
entirely  too  easy.     It  is  used  here  as  given  by  Terman.     It 
is  not  at  all  a  test  of  ability  to  discriminate  colors.     The 
child  learns  to  discriminate  the  colors  used  here,  and  un- 
doubtedly many  more  much  earlier.    But  he  does  not  learn 
the  color  names  much  earlier,  and  the  test  is  a  test  of  the 
knowledge  of  color  names.     However,  like  the  knowledge 
tested  in  a  number  of  other  tests  in  this  system,  so  here,  its 
acquisition  before  a  given  age  depends  on  a  number  of 
factors  in  mental  development,  and  the  test  becomes  indi- 
rectly a  test  of  these  factors. 

VI  1.     Distinction    Between    Right   and   Left.     In    the 
Binet-Simon   1908  scale  only  right  hand  and  left  ear  are 
called    for.      In   the   writer's    1912   revision  the   test   was 
changed  to  its  present  form,  which  is  used  also  by  Terman. 

A  frequent  error  consists  of  choosing  the  same  side  the 
second  time  as  the  first,  or  the  same  the  third  time  as  the 
second.  This  often  happens  when  the  child  is  quite  able  to 

1.  Knox,  H.  A.     Journal  of  American  Medical  Association,  March  7,   1914. 

2.  Pintner,  R.     Psychological  Review,  September,  1915. 


166  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

distinguish  right  from  left,  and  is  probably  due  to  his  atten- 
tion being  caught  by  the  different  parts  called  for,  ear  in- 
stead of  hand,  eye  instead  of  ear,  so  that  he  does  not  notice 
the  different  side  also  that  is  called  for.  The  natural  ten- 
dency then  is  to  choose  the  same  side  as  before.  For  this 
reason  the  second  trial  is  given. 

VI  2.  Aesthetic  Comparison.  A  Binet-Simon  1908 
test  in  the  same  form  as  given  here,  except  that  the  authors 
allowed  only  one  trial  for  each  pair  of  pictures  and  required 
all  three  responses  to  be  correct.  Terman  adheres  to  the 
authors'  scoring,  but  places  the  test  in  age-group  V.  Failure 
in  this  test  consists  of  absence  of  response  through  inability 
to  understand  at  all  what  is  to  be  done,  or  of  pointing  indis- 
criminately at  any  part  of  the  card,  or  persistently  choosing 
the  right  or  left  one.  There  is  a  strong  tendency  to  do  the 
last,  which  more  or  less  frequently  seems  to  be  due  to 
accidental  inattention.  For  this  reason  a  second  trial  on 
each  pair  is  allowed. 

VI  3.  Distinction  Between  Morning  and  Afternoon. 
A  Binet-Simon  1908  test.  Failure  usually  is  in  the  form 
of  repeating  the  last  word  of  the  question.  The  ability  to 
pass  the  test,  therefore,  involves  the  ability  to  overcome  this 
tendency  to  repeat  the  last  word,  which  is  unusually  strong 
in  this  test.  This  fact  also  reduces  very  largely  the  factor 
of  chance  that  enters  in  producing  a  given  percentage  of 
correct  responses. 

VI  4.  Recognition  of  Mutilation  in  Pictures.  A  Binet- 
Simon  1908  test  used  in  age -group  VII.  The  authors  do 
not  state  the  number  of  correct  responses  required  for  a 
pass.  Terman  uses  different  questions  in  the  procedure, 
requires  three  out  of  four  correct  responses,  and  uses  the 
test  in  age-goup  VI. 

The  child  frequently  fails  to  understand  at  first  what  is 
wanted,  and  the  latter  part  of  the  procedure  becomes  neces- 
sary. Often  he  will  say  that  the  neck  or  body  is  gone,  not 
having  understood  the  question  fully.  Various  other 
irrelevant  answers  are  given.  With  the  additional  help  for 


COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  167 

the  first  picture,  however,  the  responses  for  the  remaining 
three  should  be  prompt,  and  given  without  any  further  sug- 
gestions of  any  sort  from  the  examiner. 

VI  5.  Execution  of  Three  Simultaneous  Commands. 
Used  in  the  Binet- Simon  1908  scale  in  essentially  the  same 
form  as  here. 

VI  6.  Counting  Irregular  Series  of  4-6  Taps.  A  new 
test.  Mere  counting,  counting  a  regular  series  of  sounds  or 
group  of  regularly  arranged  seen  objects,  and  counting  an 
irregular  series  of  sounds  involve  vastly  different  mental 
processes.  The  last  can  readily  be  made  a  difficult  task 
for  adults.  This  test  is  repeated  in  age-group  X  in  more 
difficult  form.  It  was  suggested  by  the  other  counting  tests. 
It  has  proven  to  be  a  very  good  one,  but  its  success  depends 
on  the  care  taken  by  the  examiner  in  doing  the  tapping  cor- 
rectly. The  exact  rate  of  taps  and  pauses  is  of  the  first 
importance.  The  examiner  should  frequently  verify  his  rate 
with  a  watch.  The  tapping  is  best  done  by  a  wrist  motion 
only,  making  the  same  motion  for  the  pauses  as  well,  only 
not  allowing  the  pencil  to  strike  the  table. 

VI  7.  Folding  a  Square  of  Paper  Three  Times.  A  new 
test.  It  is  important  in  such  a  test  that  the  foldings  be  of 
such  a  nature  as  not  to  resemble  anything  likely  to  be  given 
as  kindergarten  training,  otherwise  the  effect  of  such  train- 
ing would  undoubtedly  cause  individual  variations  in  the 
results,  independently  of  the  stage  of  mental  development. 

VI  8.  Tapping  Blocks  in  Irregular  Order.  A  new  test, 
standardized  by  Pintner.  It  is  used  in  the  same  form 
here  as  recommended  by  Pintner,  who  found  83  per  cent, 
of  normal  six-year-olds  passing  it." 1  It  is  a  test  success  in 
which  depends  especially  on  close  momentary  attention  to 
the  order  of  the  blocks  being  tapped  and  keeping  in  mind 
this  order  until  it  can  be  reproduced.  This  makes  it  essen- 
tial to  take  special  precaution  to  get  the  child's  best  atten- 
tion for  each  trial.  The  task,  however,  is  much  more  inter- 

1.  Pintner,  R.  The  Standardisation  of'Knox's  Cube  Test.  Psychological 
Review,  1915. 


168  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

esting  to  children  than  might  be  supposed,  and  good  atten- 
tion is  usually  readily  obtained. 

VII  1.  Description  of  Pictures.  A  Binet-Simon  1908 
test,  used  here  with  different  pictures,  and  modified  question. 
The  authors  do  not  state  whether  they  required  a  description 
for  a  response  for  only  one  or  more  than  one  of  the  three 
pictures.  In  my  1912  revision  different  pictures  were  used 
which  did  not  call  forth  a  description  quite  as  readily  as  do 
the  present  pictures.  In  the  1912  revision  a  description  for 
only  one  of  the  pictures  scored  a  pass,  which  results  showed 
to  be  correct  scoring.  With  the  present  pictures  description 
for  two  is  required  for  passing,  due  to  the  pictures  being 
easier.  Terman  using  still  different  pictures,  and  with  a 
content  somewhat  less  familiar  to  seven-year-old  children, 
also  requires  description  for  two  for  a  pass. 

The  object  in  the  test  is  to  determine  whether  the  child 
is  capable  of  more  than  mere  enumeration,  and  the  form 
of  the  question  is  adapted  to  bring  out  description  or  inter- 
pretation. The  pictures,  being  the  same  as  those  used  in  age- 
group  III,  are  so  chosen  that  they  lend  themselves  readily 
to  either  enumeration  or  description.  The  present  pictures 
are  not  well  adapted  for  testing  the  capacity  for  interpreta- 
tion, which  appears  at  a  considerably  higher  level  of  de- 
velopment. 

VII  2.  Naming  the  First  Four  Coins.  A  Binet-Simon 
1908  test,  substituting  the  American  coins  first  suggested 
by  Goddard.  It  is  possible  that  it  would  make  some  differ- 
ence whether  the  old  or  the  new  coins  of  these  denomina- 
tions are  used.  None,  however,  has  been  detected  from 
general  observation  in  giving  this  test.  The  recognition  is 
undoubtedly  mostly  by  size  and  general  appearance  instead 
of  by  designs  and  legends. 

VII  3.  Telling  Number  of  Fingers.  A  Binet-Simon 
1908  test,  used  in  the  original  form  here. 

VII  4.  Repetition  of  Five  Numerals.  A  Binet-Simon 
1908  test.  The  authors  caution  the  examiner  about  reading 
the  numerals  in  the  several  tests  of  this  sort  at  the  given 


COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  169 

uniform  rate  of  two  numerals  a  second  independently  of 
the  length  of  the  series.  In  the  present  tests  this  rate  is 
increased  with  the  length  of  the  series,  which,  we  believe, 
gives  a  more  favorable  condition  for  correct  recall,  or  at 
least  offers  a  more  uniformly  favorable  condition  for  recall 
in  series  of  different  lengths. 

^VII  5.  Comparing  Two  Objects  From  Memory. 
Binet-Simon  used  this  test  in  age-group  VIII,  with  essen- 
tially the  same  procedure  as  given  here,  except  that  they 
used  "Paper"  and  "Cardboard"  for  the  last  comparison, 
in  place  of  "Stone"  and  "Egg."  The  substitution  used  here 
is  taken  from  Terman.  It  gives  much  more  uniform  results. 

The  object  of  the  test  is  to  determine  whether  the  child 
can  make  a  correct  comparison  from  memory.  No  exact 
definitions,  pointing  out  essentials,  or  important  differences, 
are  required.  Any  difference  that  is  really  correct  is  satis- 
factory for  an  answer. 

VII  6.  Giving  Word  Opposites.  This  is  new  in  the 
Binet-Simon  scale,  but  has  been  used  in  various  forms  by 
different  writers  and  for  a  variety  of  'purposes.  It  has 
proven  to  be  an  exceptionally  good  test  for  this  age,  and 
can  be  used  in  one  or  two  higher  age-groups,  when  a  higher 
score  is  required.  Children  much  below  seven  usually  fail 
completely,  apparently  because  of  inability  to  comprehend 
the  task.  This  inability  appears  at  times  with  seven-year- 
olds.  Many  do  not  understand  the  term  "Opposite,"  and 
the  illustrations  given  are  a  very  essential  part  of  the  pro- 
cedure. The  particular  words  used,  also,  is  of  the  first  im- 
portance, as  well  as  the  form  of  the  association  test.  A 
word-opposite  association  test  in  another  form  is  used  again 
below  for  much  higher  age  levels.  In  this  a  list  of  printed 
words  is  presented  to  the  subject  simultaneously,  who  is 
then  required  to  give  the  opposite  as  fast  as  he  can.  Some 
of  the  same  words  are  used,  but  the  changed  form  of  the 
test  calls  for  and  makes  possible  a  quite  different  mental 
operation. 


170  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

VII  7.  Repeating  Three  Numerals  Backwards.  This 
test  was  suggested  by  Bobertag  and  standardized  for  the 
Binet-Simon  scale  by  Terman.  It  is  used  here  in  the  same 
form  as  given  by  the  latter. 

VII  8.     Copying  a  Diamond.    A  Binet-Simon  1908  test. 
It  is  like  the  one  on  drawing  a  square  and  placed  in  age-group 
V,  having  been  standardized  for  pen  and  ink.     But  for  the 
diamond  as  for  the  square,  if  the  child  fails  with  pen  and 
ink  he  usually  fails  also  when  a  pencil  is  substituted,  except 
in  cases  of  motor  disturbances.    The  drawings  made  by  the 
child  should  always  be  carefully  compared  with  the  samples 
in  scoring. 

VIII  1.     Counting  the  Value  of  Stamps.     Binet-Simon 
used  coins,  three  simple  and  three  double  sous,  for  this  test. 
The  stamps,  suggested  by  Goddard,  do  not  seem  to  change 
the  test  in  any  respect. 

The  most  frequent  failure  consists  in  simply  counting  the 
number  of  stamps.  Giving  any  number  at  once  in  mere 
guessing  is  also  common.  The  ability  to  be  tested  is  that 
of  performing  the  simple  arithmetical  operation  involved, 
and,  if  the  child  does  not  know  the  value  of  the  individual 
stamps,  he  must  be  told.  This  also  largely  removes  the  in- 
fluence of  variable  training,  which  might  otherwise  possibly 
be  a  fault  in  this  test. 

VIII  2.  Size  of  Vocabulary.  This  is  one  of  Terman's 
new  tests,  who  uses  it  in  several  different  age-groups.  He 
says  of  it:  "The  vocabulary  test  has  a  far  higher  value 
than  any  other  single  test  in  the  scale.  .  .  .  Our  statis- 
tics show  that  in  a  large  majority  of  cases  the  vocabulary 
test  alone  will  give  us  an  intelligence  quotient  within 
ten  per  cent,  of  that  secured  by  the  entire  scale."  Only 
half  of  his  list  of  words  is  given  here,  as  this  is  more  than 
is  ever  needed  for  eight-year-olds.  The  writer's  experi- 
ence confirms  in  the  main  Terman's  remarks  about  the 
value  of  the  test,  but  the  score  of  twenty  words  satisfac- 
torily defined  for  eight-year-olds  seems  somewhat  high. 
Feeble-minded  with  a  mental  age  of  eight  as  a  rule  fall 


COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  171 

considerably  short  of  getting  twenty  words.  Terman's 
results  with  normal  eight-year-olds  shows  an  average  of 
59  per  cent,  passing. 

VIII  3.  Counting  Backwards  From  Tzventy  to  One. 
A  Binet-Simon  1908  test.  The  procedure  is  slightly 
changed,  and  the  authors  also  did  not  allow  more  than 
twenty  seconds  for  counti'ng  under  any  circumstances. 
The  test  fulfills  well  the  chief  conditions  of  a  good  test. 
At  the  same  time,  its  value  can  be  quite  destroyed  in 
individual  cases  through  training  or  lack  of  it.  It  is  un- 
questionably just  as  easy  to  learn  to  say  this  series  back- 
wards as  it  is  forwards,  if  the  first  and  only  training  is  in 
saying  it  backwards.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  very 
difficult  to  say  it  backwards  in  twenty  seconds  if  one  had 
never  tried  it  before.  The  test  probably  gains  its  value 
through  the  fact  that  all  children  learn  to  count  forwards 
readily  and  get  the  associations  thoroughly  fixed  in  this 
direction,  and  also  get  sufficient  training  before  the  age 
of  eight  years  in  counting  backwards  to  learn  to  do  so  if 
they  can  learn  at  all.  The  test  then  becomes  a  test  of  the 
ability  to  learn  to  break  up  or  reverse  a  well-fixed  series 
of  associations. 

VIII  4.  Comprehension.  A  new  test.  The  several 
trials  of  this  test  being  quite  the  same  in  nature,  the  child 
usually  fails  outright  in  all  or  passes  in  all,  or  in  all  but 
one  or  two,  the  failure  in  one  or  two  being  probably  due 
to  poor  attention  rather  than  to  inability  to  comprehend. 
Children  much  younger  than  eight  years  almost  invariably 
fail  altogether,  possibly  because  they  are  not  familiar 
with  the  terms,  "Upper  right,"  etc.  But  familiarity  with 
terms  used  and  ability  to  comprehend  the  task  the  terms 
describe  are  not  independent  in  this  test  any  more  than 
in  a  number  of  the  others.  Terms  'become  familiar,  on 
the  whole,  as  fast  as  the  power  to  analyze  and  compre- 
hend develops. 

VIII   '5.     Giving  Word  Opposite s.    New,  same  as  VII  6. 

VIII    6.     Giving  Similarities.     Suggested  first  by  Bober- 


172  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

tag  for  the  Binet  scale,  and  standardized  by  Terman.  It 
is  given  and  scored  here  according  to  the  latter's  directions. 
VIII  7.  Folding  a  Square  of  Paper  Five  Times.  New. 
The  test  is  the  same  as  VI  7,  made  more  difficult  by  requir- 
ing five  instead  of  three  folds  to  be  reproduced. 

VIII  8.     Counting  Dots.     New.     A  number  of  different 
dot  counting  tests  were  tried  out,  many  turning  out  very 
poorly,  while  the  present  one  gives  very  good  results.    The 
essentials  seem  to  be  irregularity  in  arrangement  of  dots, 
right  numbers  and  spacing  in  each  group,  right  number  of 
groups,   possibility  of  a  continuous  counting  process,  and 
adaptation  of  these  to  the  ages  for  which  the  test  is  to  be 
used. 

IX  1.     Giving    the   Date.     A   Binet-Simon    1908   test, 
given  and  scored  here  in  the  same  way  as  by  the  authors. 
The  criticism  often  made  against  this  test  that  training, 
accidental  knowledge  or  lack  of  it,  is  too  large  a  factor  does 
not  apply  in  any  serious  degree.    The  fact  that  normal  adults 
frequently  do  not  know  the  exact  day  of  the  month  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  they  often  have  no  interest  or  motive  for 
remembering.     Normal  children,  however,  at  this  age  seem 
to  have  a  natural  interest  in  the  date,  and  have  the  necessary 
intelligence  to  keep  track  of  it. 

IX  2.  Arrangement  of  Weights.  A  Binet-Simon  1908 
test.  The  authors'  procedure  is  somewhat  changed  here,  as 
are  also  the  weights  used.  The  weights  in  the  present  series 
are  6,  12,  18,  24  and  30  grams.  The  authors  used  a  series 
of  3,  6,  9,  12  and  15  grams.  The  test  has  been  used  in  a 
number  of  slightly  varied  forms  both  as  to  the  weights 
themselves  and  the  procedure  in  giving  the  test.  There  are 
some  objections  to  using  a  weight  as  light  as  three  grams. 
In  the  procedure  it  is  important  to  have  directions  that  are 
brief,  easily  intelligible,  and  that  will  lead  to  uniformity  of 
method  with  different  children  in  choosing  the  weights. 
The  directions  are  therefore  broken  up  into  several  steps, 
each  of  them  by  itself  quite  brief,  and  an  illustration  is 
given  in  lifting  the  weights.  Nine-year-old  children  are  still 


COMMENTS  ON  THE:  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  173 

too  young  to  listen  with  sustained  attention  to  lengthy  direc- 
tions, and  there  are  several  very  poor  ways  of  lifting  the 
weights  which  many  children  will  accidentally  follow  if 
they  are  left  to  choose  their  own,  and,  therefore,  fail  in  the 
test. 

IX  3.  Using  Three  Words  in  a  Sentence.  Used  by 
Binet-Simon  in  age-group  X,  with  considerably  different 
procedure.  The  words  used  were  "Paris,  fortune  and 
river,"  and  the  child  was  asked  to  write  the  sentence.  Chil- 
dren can  be  easily  coached  on  this  test,  and  three  different 
groups  of  words  are  given  here,  any  one  of  which  may  be 
used.  Results  with  the  second  and  third  groups  have  been 
compared  with  those  of  the  first  group,  and  no  apparent 
difference  has  been  found. 

The  responses  obtained  in  this  test  may  be  divided  into 
several  classes,  (a)  Using  only  one  or  two  of  the  words 
and  omitting  the  other  entirely,  (b)  Making  three  separate 
sentences  or  one  with  the  three  independent  parts  joined 
by  "and,"  like  "Money  is  to  buy  things  with;  the  river  is 
deep,  and  St.  Paul  is  a  big  city."  (c)  Making  two  sen- 
tences, expressing  two  separate  ideas,  like:  "St.  Paul  is  on 
the  river,  and  there  is  lots  of  money."  (d)  Making  one 
sentence,  expressing  only  one  idea,  like :  "I  lost  some  money 
on  the  river  at  St.  Paul."  Only  sentences  belonging  to  one  of 
the  last  two  classes  are  accepted  as  satisfactory. 

IX  4.  Making  Change.  Used  by  Binet-Simon  in  a 
quite  different  form.  In  the  authors'  original  test  the  ex- 
aminer proposed  playing  store  with  the  child.  A  variety 
of  coins  and  some  articles  were  placed  before  the  child. 
The  examiner  then  proposed  to  buy  a  box  for  four  sous,  gave 
the  child  a  one-franc  piece  and  requested  him  to  give  back 
the  correct  change.  In  Goddard's  adaptation  of  the  test  for 
American  coins,  the  test  is  kept  in  this  form,  the  examiner 
buying  something  for  nine  cents,  and  requiring  the  child  to 
return  the  correct  change  out  of  twenty-five  cents.  In  the 
writer's  1912  revision  of  the  scale  this  test  was  changed  to 
the  present  form,  which  is  practically  the  same  as  used  now 


174  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

by  Terman.  The  test  in  this  form  is  much  easier  to  give 
than  the  original,  and  seems  to  be  equally  good. 

IX  5.  Definition  Better  Than  According  to  Use.  A 
Binet-Simon  1908  test  for  age-groups  VI  and  IX.  The 
authors  give  only  the  list  of  words  used  in  age-group  VI, 
and  no  separate  list  for  IX.  In  using  this  six-year  list  for  a 
nine-year  test  the  writer  frequently  found  that  the  child 
would  not  respond  at  all,  apparently  because  the  questions 
"What  is  a  fork?"  etc.,  seemed  too  childish  for  children  with 
mental  ages  of  about  nine.  In  my  1912  revision  the  words 
' 'Telephone,  batloon,  football,  tiger  and  battleship"  were 
used  for  this  test  in  age-group  IX.  Terman  uses  the  words 
"Balloon,  tiger,  football  and  soldier,"  places  it  in  age-group 
VIII,  and  requires  two  satisfactory  definitions  out  of  the 
four. 

For  a  classification  of  the  different  kinds  of  responses, 
see  V  6.  The  great  majority  of  satisfactory  responses  de- 
scribe some  trait  of  the  object,  as  size,  shape  and  how  it 
is  made.  A  still  higher  form  than  the  descriptive  is  the 
logical  form,  such  as :  "A  telephone  is  a  thing  used  to  talk 
to  a  person  far  away."  This  is  rarely  given  at  this  age.  A 
little  experience  in  observing  the  kinds  of  definitions  usually 
given  at  the  age  of  five  as  compared  with  those  given  at  this 
age  usually  removes  any  difficulty  in  classifying. 

IX  6.  Comprehension.  A  new  test.  General  observa- 
tion in  giving  this  test  to  a  number  of  children  of  different 
ages  leaves  an  unfavorable  impression  as  to  its  value.  This 
is  because  younger  children  who  pass  this  test  often  succeed 
readily  in  all  six  trials,  while  older  children  who  fail,  often 
fail  entirely  in  all  trials.  This  results  from  the  fact  that  the 
several  trials  are  all  quite  of  the  same  nature.  A  small  minor- 
ity fail  in  the  first  few  trials  and  then  seem  to  comprehend 
the  task  for  the  remaining  trials.  With  the  method  of  scor- 
ing used,  there  is  a  satisfactory  increase  in  the  percentage  of 
children  eight,  nine  and  ten  years  old  that  pass  it. 

IX  7.  Repeating  Four  Numerals  Backwards.  Taken 
from  Terman's  revision  of  the  scale,  and  given  here  in  the 


COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  175 

same  form,  except  that  the  numbers  are  slightly  changed. 
See  VII  7  for  further  comment. 

IX  8.     Counting  Dots.     New.     See   VIII  8   for  com- 
ments. 

X  1.     Drawing  Designs  From  Memory.     Used  by  Binet- 
Simon  in  their  1905  series  of  tests  and  in  their  1911  re- 
vision. The  designs  used  here  and  the  procedure  are  identi- 
cal with  those  of  Binet-Simon. 

X   2.     Counting  Dots.     See  above. 

X  3.  Spelling  Familiar  Words  Backwards.  New.  This 
test  was  suggested  by  the  one  on  repeating  numerals  back- 
wards. The  mental  processes  involved  are  probably  quite 
similar  in  the  two.  But  for  these  higher  mental  levels  the 
test  on  repeating  numerals  backwards  necessarily  changes 
considerably  in  character  because  of  the  longer  series  of 
numerals  that  is  required.  In  these  longer  series  the  subject 
often  forgets  what  the  series  were  forwards.  This  difficulty 
is  removed  in  the  present  test,  but  another  is  met  -  in  the 
fact  that  occasionally  children  of  sufficient  intelligence  to 
otherwise  pass  the  test  are  not  able  to  spell  the  words  for- 
wards. 

X  4.  Counting  Irregular  Series  of  9-12  Taps.  New. 
Great  care  is  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  examiner  in  doing 
the  tapping  correctly.  The  exact  rate  of  taps  and  pauses 
is  of  the  first  importance.  The  examiner  should  frequently 
verify  his  rate  with  a  watch,  practicing  particularly  on 
allowing  just  one  second  for  a  square.  The  tapping  is  best 
done  by  a  wrist  motion  only,  making  the  same  motion  for 
the  blank  squares  and  pauses,  only  not  allowing  the  pencil 
to  strike  the  table.  For  further  comment  see  VI  6. 

X  5.  Detection  of  Absurdities  in  Absurd  Statements. 
Used  by  Binet-Simon  in  age-group  XI  in  their  1908  scale 
and  changed  to  X  in  their  191 1  revision.  They  used  the  fol- 
lowing five  statements,  requiring  three  to  be  answered  cor- 
rectly for  a  pass. 


176  A  HANDBOOK  OK  MENTAL  TESTS 

(1).  "An  unfortunate  bkycle  rider  fell  on  his  head  and 
was  killed  instantly;  he  was  taken  to  a  hospital  and  they 
fear  he  will  not  recover." 

(2).     "I  have  three  brothers,  'Paul,  Ernest  and  myself/  "" 

(3).  "The  body  of  an  unfortunate  young  girl,  cut  into 
eighteen  pieces,  was  found  yesterday  on  the  fortifications. 
It  is  thought  that  she  killed  herself." 

(4) .  "There  was  a  railroad  accident  yesterday,  but  it  was 
not  a  bad  one ;  the  number  of  dead  is  only  48." 

(5).  "Someone  said:  'If  I  should  ever  grow  desperate 
and  kill  myself,  I  will  not  choose  Friday,  because  Friday  is 
an  unlucky  day  and  will  bring  me  unhappiness."  * 

Whipple  objected  to  some  of  these  because  they  were  too 
"blood-curdling."  I  have  found  the  last  somewhat  unsatis- 
factory because  it  allows  of  interpretations  that  do  away 
with  the  nonsense,  and  children  often  give  these  interpreta- 
tions. In  the  present  form  of  the  test  the  first  three  are 
retained,  the  last  two  are  dropped,  while  the  third  given  here 
is  borrowed  from  Terman. 

X  6.  Giving  the  Associated  Numbers  for  the  Dissected 
Parts  of  a  Simple  Form.  This  is  a  modification  of  a  test 
used  by  Healy.2  In  the  code  test  used  by  Healy  four  forms 
are  required  to  furnish  a  part  for  each  of  the  alphabet. 
The  first  of  these  is  the  same  as  one  in  the  present  test  with 
the  letters  a  to  i.  The  second  is  a  duplicate  but  adds  a  dot 
in  each  part,  and  has  the  letters  j  to  r.  The  third  is  a  large 
X  with  the  letters  s  to  v.  The  fourth  is  the  same  as  the 
third  but  adds  a  dot  in  each  part,  and  has  the  letters  w  to  z. 
In  the  test  the  child  is  shown  all  the  forms  together  with  the 
letters  in  them.  They  are  then  removed  and  he  is  required 
to  write  a  brief  code  message  in  them  by  drawing  the  parts 
only  that  contained  the  letters  required  in  the  message.  The 
code  test  is  more  interesting  than  the  present  one,  and  more 

1.  From  the  translation  of  the  Binet-Siraon  1911  revision  by  Clara  Harrison 
Town. 

2.  Healy,    W.,    and    Fernald,    Grace   Maxwell.      Tests   for   Practical   Mental 
Classification.     Psychological   Review   Publications.     Psychological   Monographs, 
March,  1911. 


COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  177 

difficult.  An  objection  to  it  is  that  it  is  quite  likely  to  be 
communicated  and  become  familiar  to  children  of  a  group 
before  all  are  examined.  The  writer  also  found  considerable 
difficulty  in  finding  a  simple  explanation  for  the  test  which 
children  would  grasp  readily,  which  made  really  two  tests 
of  it;  first  the  test  on  the  ability  to  comprehend  the  explana- 
tion, and  second  the  test  on  the  ability  to  use  the  code.  The 
present  test  has  been  tried  out  with  various  forms  of  pro- 
cedure, chiefly  to  remove  the  difficulty  so  many  children  had 
of  understanding  what  they  were  to  do,  and  of  recognizing 
at  once  that  the  dissected  parts  were  parts  of  the  whole  fig- 
ure. The  present  procedure  is  longer  than  others  that  have 
been  tried,  but  removes  the  difficulty  in  question  entirely.  It 
is  not  a  memory  test,  except  possibly  to  a  very  small  degree. 
It  calls  for  the  ability  to  grasp  the  plan  of  the  numbering 
of  the  parts,  which,  when  once  understood,  cannot  be  for- 
gotten in  the  course  of  the  test,  and  for  the  ability  to  re- 
image  the  figure  to  mentally  find  the  number  for  each, 
part. 

X  7.  Crossing  out  q,  r,  s,  t  in  pied  text.  New.  This 
test  was  at  first  intended  for  higher  age-groups  only,  for 
which  it  was  tried  out  in  most  of  its  forms  as  usually  found 
in  the  literature.  It  went  through  a  great  number  of 
changes.  The  present  features  which  have  made  it  a  suc- 
cess are  the  following:  (a)  Reduction  of  the  amount  of 
text  to  about  a  fourth  of  what  is  often  used.  The  task  is 
very  fatiguing  to  the  eyes,  (b)  Changing  the  style  of  let- 
ter, size  of  letter,  letter  and  line  spacing,  and  length  of  line,  to 
conform  to  conditions  found  by  psychologists  to  be  most 
favorable  to  easy  legibility,  (c)  Making  the  mental  pro- 
cesses involved  much  more  complex,  and  less  mechanical,  by 
calling  for  four  letters  to  be  crossed  out  instead  of  one, 
and  by  having  each  crossed  out  in  a  different  way.  (d)  Giv- 
ing the  subject  definite  rules  and  conditions  for  the  work, 
as  given  in  the  directions,  (e)  Placing  it  in  the  present 
age  groups,  and  limiting  it  to  them,  (f)  The  present 
method  of  scoring. 


178  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

X  8.     Giving  the  word  opposites.     New.     This  test  in 
the  same  or  different  forms  has  been  used  by  various  writ- 
ers on  many  different  occasions.     It  is  here  introduced  into 
the  Binet-Simon  scale  for  the  first  time.     From  the  stand- 
point  of   discriminative   capacity  and  especially   range   of 
applicability  in  a  number  of  different  age-groups,  it  is  one 
of  the  best  in  the  scale.     Though  in  several  respects  the 
same  as  the  word  opposites  test  used  in  age-groups  VII  and 
VIII,  it  involves  quite  different  mental  processes  and  there- 
by becomes  applicable  for  these  higher  ages.     The  subject 
here  has  all  the  words  before  him,  simultaneously,  which 
gives  the  possibility  of  thinking  of  more  than  one  word  at 
a  time,  and  thereby  reduces  the  association  'time  materially. 
A  good  score  in  this  test  depends  on  the  ability  to  control 
several    mental    processes    simultaneously,    of    which    the 
younger  child  is  quite  incapable. 

The  examiner  has  some  difficulty  in  giving  this  test  until 
after  a  little  practice.  A  good  way  is  to  place  the  stop 
watch  close  to  the  duplicate  list  of  words  for  the  examiner, 
and  then  while  following  the  words  with  one  hand,  keep  a 
pencil  over  the  dial  of  the  stop  watch  with  the  other,  and 
each  time  the  subject  gives  a  word  place  the  pencil  ten  sec- 
onds ahead  of  the  moving  second  hand.  In  this  way  the 
error  made  in  judging  when  the  ten  seconds  are  up  for  a 
word  is  hardly  ever  much  over  a  second,  which  is  quite  accu- 
rate enough  for  the  test.  If  a  split-second  stop  watch  is 
used  all  difficulty  is  entirely  removed. 

XI  1.     Words  to  put  in  order  to  make  a  sentence.     A 
Binet-Simon  1908  test,  just  as  given  here,  except  that  the 
authors  allowed  only  one  minute  for  getting  a  sentence,  and 
did  not  use  the  first  for  an  illustration  when  found  neces- 
sary.  The  present  form  makes  it  an  easier  test,  but  accord- 
ing to  our  results  it  is  correctly  placed  in  this  age-group 
when  used  in  this  way.     Terman,  following  the  author's 
procedure  in  giving  the  test,  places  it  in  age-group  XII. 
Failure  to  get  the  first  sentence  is  often  due  to  the  child's 
not  understanding  what  is  to  be  done,  hence,  the  first  one 


COMMENTS  ON  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  179 

is  given  to  him  as  an  illustration,  if  he  fails  in  it.  Also,  he 
will  sometimes  get  the  sentence  quite  readily,  excepting  that 
he  will  omit  a  word  or  alter  it  slightly.  This  is  largely 
accidental,  but  slightly  related  to  his  ability,  and  should  not 
at  once  be  counted  as  a  failure  for  the  sentence.  Again, 
children  who  are  merely  "slow"  but  intelligent,  need  more 
than  a  minute  for  a  sentence,  which  is  what  has  usually 
been  allowed  in  this  test. 

XI  2.  Repeating  one  or  two  sentences  with  twenty- 
four  syllables.  Binet-Simon  gave  five  trials  on  this  test, 
placed  in  age-group  XII.  ,  The  lengths  of  the  sentences 
used  were  24,  26,  28,  30  and  32  syllables,  respectively,  for 
the  five  trials.  The  sentences  used  were  as  follows : 

(1)  "My  children,  one  must  work  very  hard  in  order 
to  live ;  one  must  go  to  school  every  morning." 

(2)  "The  other  day  I  saw  in  the  street  a  little  yellow  dog. 
Little  Maurice  has  soiled  his  new  apron." 

(3)  "Earnest  is  often  punished  for  his  naughty  conduct. 
I  bought  at  the  store  a  pretty  doll  for  my  little  niece. 

(4)  "That  night  there  was  a  'terrible  storm  of  lightning. 
My  companion  has  taken  cold,  he  has  a  fever  and  coughs 
very  much." 

(5)  "The  tram  car  is  cheaper  than  the  omnibus;  it  costs 
only  two  cents.     It  is  droll  to  see  women  driving  coaches 
in  Paris."  * 

Binet-Simon  required  the  twelve-year-old  to  repeat  a  sen- 
tence of  26  syllables  or  more  in  order  to  pass  the  test.  Ter- 
man  uses  sentences  of  22  syllables,  gives  three  trials,  and 
places  the  test  in  age-group  X,  one  correct  repetition  pass- 
ing the  test.  The  present  writer  has  found  that  the  exact 
nature  and  content  of  the  sentences  used  is,  within  limits, 
as  important  as  is  the  length.  The  third  sentence  used  here 
is  still  objectionable  in  respect  to  form  and  content. 
Although  of  the  same  length  as  the  others,  it  Is  much  more 
difficult. 


1.  From  translation  by  Elizabeth  S.  Kite,  in  The  Development  of  Intelli- 
gence" by  Alfred  Binet  and  T.  H.  Simon.  Publications  of  the  Training  School 
at  Vinelarid  New  Jersey.  Department  of  Research.  No.  11,  May,  1916. 


180  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

XI  3.  Giving  definitions  of  abstract  terms.  Binet- 
Simon  used  the  words  "Charity,  justice,  and  goodness"  only, 
requiring  two  to  be  satisfactorily  defined.  In  my  1912 
revision  the  words  "Charity,  justice,  bravery,  revenge, 
kindness"  were  used,  requiring  three  to  be  satisfactorily 
defined.  Terman  uses  "Pity,  revenge,  charity,  envy,  justice," 
and  requires  three  satisfactory  definitions,  but  places  it  in 
age-group  XII. 

Any  test  that  involves  the  ability  to  think  in  abstract 
terms,  or  to  generalize  in  the  simplest  manner,  is  of  special 
value  in  discriminating  older  children  and  adults  that  are 
mentally  defective  from  the  normal.  Inability  in  this  line 
is  one  of  the  most  prominent  distinguishing  traits  of  the 
high-grade  feeble-minded.  This  test  is  especially  valuable 
for  this  reason.  The  beginner  has  some  difficulty  in  scor- 
ing responses  which  makes  it  less  satisfactory  in  this 
respect. 

XI  4.  Giving  the  associated  number  for  the  dissected 
parts  of  a  simple  form.  See  X  6  for  comments. 

XI  5.  Crossing  out  q,  r}  s,  t  in  pied  text.  See  X  7  for 
comment. 

XI  6.  Simple  Arithmetical  Problems.  New.  In  get- 
ting the  norms  for  this  test  it  was  given  as  a  group  test  to 
fifteen  to  thirty  children  at  a  time.  The  procedure,  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  child,  however,  was  so  nearly  the  same 
as  when  given  to  one  alone  as  to  make  it  unlikely  that  the 
norms  are  seriously  too  high  or  too  low.  It  is  undoubtedly 
affected  some  by  training  and  practice,  which  gives  it  a 
larger  individual  variation  in  the  scores  made  by  children 
of  any  given  age  than  is  true  of  some  of  the  other  tests. 

XI    7.     Giving  Word  Opposites.     See  X  8  for  comments. 

XI  8.  Immediate  Recall  of  Unfamiliar  Forms.  New. 
Although  a  memory  test  in  form,  the  task  involved  here  calls 
for  a  maximum  concentration  of  attention  and  effort,  both 
in  memorizing  during  the  ten  seconds,  and  in  the  recall 
immediately  afterwards.  It  is  chiefly  to  this  aspect,  un- 
doubtedly, rather  than  to  the  memory  factor,  that  its  value 


COMMENTS  ON  THE:  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS  181 

as  an  intelligence  test  is  due.  The  arbitrariness  and  mean- 
inglessness  of  the  forms,  the  construction  of  the  series  ac- 
cording to  a  definite  rule,  and  the  procedure  are  essential 
features  of  the  test.  It  is  applicable  over  a  wide  range  of 
years,  giving  regularly  increasing  scores  from  younger  to 
older  subjects. 

XII  1,  2,  3  4,  5,  6.     See  above  for  comments. 

XII  7.  Following  directions  in  a  confusing  Text.  New 
in  the  Binet-Simon  scale.  The  test  is  taken  from  a  Columbia 
University  study  in  which  the  results  have  shown  a  high 
correlation  with  general  mental  ability.  A  minor  change 
in  the  procedure  to  make  plain  to  younger  subjects  what 
they  were  to  do  in  the  test,  and  a  slight  change  in  the  text  at 
the  end  were  found  necessary. 1 

XII  8.     Locating  Sections  of  a  Divided  Square  From 
Description.     New.     This  test  was  suggested  by  the  diffi- 
culty children  of  this  age,  and  older,  often  have  in  follow- 
ing descriptions  used  to  locate  land  in  our  system  dividing 
it  into  townships,  sections,  and  parts  of  sections.   This  test, 
themgh  simple  in  comparison,  has  been  found  difficult  enough 
when  quickness  of  comprehension  is  made  a  factor.     The 
directions  requesting  the  subject  to  take  the  description  back- 
wards is  very  essential,  as  this  method  makes  it  much  easier 
and  is  one  into  which  some  fall  at  once,  while  others  do  not, 
independently  of  their  general  abilities. 

XIII  to  XV  1,  2,  3,  4,  5.     See  above  for  comments. 

XIII  to  XV  6.  Drawing  Triangles  on  Squares  Accord- 
ing to  Directions.  New.  Toulouse  and  Pieron  2  use  tests 
somewhat  similar  to  this  to  measure  "comprehension," 
which  suggested  the  present  procedure  of  drawing  triangles 
on  squares  according  to  description.  It  is  immaterial 
whether  the  test  is  properly  named.  It  has  fulfilled  the 
requirements  of  a  test  quite  well,  but  has  not  the  range  of 
application  that  some  of  the  others  here  have.  When  used 

Woodrow,  R.  S.,  and  Wells.  F.  L.  Association  Tests.  Psychological  Review 
Publications.  Psychological  Monographs,  December,  1911. 

2.     See  Technique  de  Psychologie  Experimentale,   1911. 


182  A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 

on  younger  subjects  an  age  is  soon  reached  where  all  fail 
entirely  in  the  task  set  here. 

XIII  to  XV  7.  Drawing  Upright  Forms  in  Inverted 
Positions.  New.  This  test  is  as  difficult  on  the  whole  as 
any  in  the  system.  It  is  intended  to  give  a  task  that  involves 
constructive  imagination  chiefly,  intensive  directed  thinking 
towards  a  definite  end.  But  an  adequate  analysis  of  the 
processes  involved  cannot  at  present  be  given  any  more  than 
for  most  of  the  other  tests.  It  has  been  tried  out  in  a 
variety  of  forms,  the  present  form  proving  the  most  satisfac- 
tory. There  is  considerable  individual  variability  in  the  re- 
sults, but  on  the  whole  subjects  much  below  thirteen  fail  en- 
tirely. This  test  and  the  next  one  have  not  been  as  thoroughly 
standardized  as  have  the  others.  It  is  probable  that  the 
average  scores  would  show  improvement  considerably  be- 
yond the  age  of  fifteen,  but  our  results  so  far  are  inadequate 
to  show  this  positively. 

XIII  to  XV  8.  Making  Logical  Inferences.  New.  The 
original  aim  of  this  test  needs  no  explanation.  The  syllogism 
is  the  stock  illustration  of  logical  inference.  It  should  not 
be  understood,  however,  that  reasoning  power  in  general 
can  be  at  all  adequately  measured  by  such  tests  alone.  This 
test  also  has  'been  tried  out  in  a  number  of  forms  before  a 
satisfactory  procedure  was  found.  It  was  suggested  by  the 
test  given  by  Toulouse  and  Pieron  using  syllogisms  to  test 
reasoning.  Since  experimenting  with  it  was  begun  other 
syllogism  tests  have  been  standardized  by  other  writers.  I 
have  considered  it  important  to  have  the  syllogism  in  this 
abstract  form,  instead  of  giving  it  concrete  content,  such 
as  "All  men  are  mortal ;  Socrates  is  a  man,"  etc.  If  put  in 
this  concrete  form  there  is  always  the  possibility  that  the 
subject  will  accept  or  reject  a  given  conclusion  directly,  in- 
stead of  going  through  the  process  of  reasoning  from  the 
premises  given. 


.MATERIALS  REQUIRED  FOR  TESTS  BELOW 
AGE-GROUP  III. 

One-inch  cube,  or  other  small  object. 

Two  telegraphic  snappers. 

Electric  flash  lamp,  or  other  very  bright  object. 

Candle. 

Pillow,  or  similar  support  for  back  in  sitting. 

Hand  bell,  about  two  inches  in  diameter. 

Ball,  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  in  diameter. 

Baby  rattle. 

Colored  pictures  of  baby,  older  persons,  domestic 
animals,  such  as  may  be  found  in  children's  picture  books 
or  in  magazine  advertisements. 

Glass  of  water. 

Glass  of  milk. 

Bowl  of  bread  and  milk,  or  other  food,  with  spoon. 

Plate  and  fork,  with  any  suitable  food. 

Bread  and  slightly  weakened  vinegar. 

Lump  sugar,  or  candy. 

Four-inch  squares  of  tissue  paper. 


183 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  OF  INTELLIGENCE  QUOTIENTS 
The  following  intelligence  quotient  table  gives  these 
quotients  from  25  -to  150,  for  the  ages  of  three  years  to 
maturity,  and  the  mental  ages  of  three  to  fifteen,  inclusive. 
The  figures  at  the  top  of  the  table  give  the  mental  ages  in 
terms  of  years  and  eighths  of  a  year.  The  first  column  on 
the  left  in  the  table  gives  the  chronological  ages  in  years  and 
months.  Since  'the  scale  has  eight  tests  in  each  age  group, 
the  fractions  of  a  year  in  the  mental  ages  are  given,  of 
course,  in  eighths.  By  not  reducing  these  to  terms  of 
months  to  correspond  to  the  way  of  expressing  the  chrono- 
logical age,  an  operation  is  eliminated  for  both  age  and 
mental  age  in  finding  the  intelligence  quotient.  In  using  this 
table  to  find  the  I.  Q.  of  a  case,  his  age  is  left  in  terms  of 
years  and  months,  and  his  mental  age  is  left  in  terms  of 
years  and  eighths  of  a  year.  For  example,  assume  a  case 
with  an  age  of  twelve  years  and  seven  months,  and  with  a 
mental  age  of  eight  and  five-eighths  of  a  year.  You  look 
under  VIII,  column  5,  down  to  age  12  years  7  months,  and 
find  the  I.  Q.  of  69. 

When  not  all  eight  tests  in  each  age-group  have  been  used 
in  making  an  examination  this  I.  Q.  table  may  be  used  with 
the  aid  of  the  following  figures,  giving  the  reduction  of  dif- 
ferent fractions  of  a  year  in  mental  age,  the  half,  third, 
fourth,  fifth,  sixth  and  seventh  of  a  year,  to  eighths. 


2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

1 

4 

2  7 

2 

1  6 

1  3 

1  i 

2 

5  3 

4 

3  2 

2  7 

2  3 

3.. 

6 

4  8 

4.0 

3  4 

4  

6  4 

5.3 

4.6 

5  

6.7 

5.7 

6  

6.9 

187 


188  A  HANDBOOK  otf  MENTAL  TESTS 

The  first  row  of  figures  at  the  top  gives  the  number  of 
tests  per  age-group  that  may  have  been  used  in  an  examina- 
tion. The  figures  below  these  give  the  number  of  eighths  in 
each  fraction  of  a  year  from  a  half  to  a  seventh.  Thus, 
two-fifths  of  a  year  equal  3.2  eighths,  three-fifths  equal  4.8 
eighths,  and  so  on.  Suppose  that  six  tests  only  of  each  age- 
group  had  been  used  in  an  examination  of  a  case  aged  ten 
years  and  five  months,  giving  a  mental  age  of  seven  and 
five-sixths  years.  Five-sixths  equals  6.7  eighths  of  a  year. 
In  the  I.  Q.  table  we  find  the  I.  Q.'s  at  this  age  for  the  next 
higher  and  next  lower  mental  ages,  that  is,  for  7  7-8  and 
7  6-8,  which  are  76  and  74,  respectively.  The  I.  Q.  for  this 
case  is,  therefore,  74  plus  .7  (76-74),  or  75.4,  A  little 
familiarity  with  the  I.  Q.  table  will  show  that  one  can  usually 
tell  at  once  by  inspection  whether  it  is  necessary  to  go 
through  this  operation  or  not.  In  very  many  instances  it  is 
at  once  obvious  that  the  difference  between  two  such  adjacent 
I.  Q.'s  is  not  sufficient  to  add  as  much  as  a  point  to  the  I.  Q. 


TABLE  OK  INTELLIGENCE  QUOTIENTS 


189 


r 

[I 

IV 

0  1 

2  3 

4   5 

6   7 

0   1 

2    3 

4   5 

6    7 

100  104 
97  102 
95  99 

109  113 
105  110 
103  107 

117  121 
114  118 
110  115 

125  129 
122  126 
118  122 

133  138 

130  134 
126  130 

142  146 
138  142 
134  138 

ISO 
146  150 
142  146 

150 

92  96 
90  94 

88  92 

100  104 
98  102 
95  99 

108  112 
105  109 
102  106 

115  119 
113  117 
110  113 

123  127 
120  124 
117  121 

131  135 

128  132 
124  128 

138  143 
135  139 
132  135 

146  150 
143  147 
139  143 

86  89 
84  87 
82  86 

93  97 
91  94 
89  92 

100  104 
98  101 
96   99 

107  111 
105  108 
102  106 

114  118 
112  115 
109  113 

121  125 
119  122 
116  120 

129  132 
126  129 
123  127 

136  139 
133  136 
130  133 

80  84 
78  82 
77  80 

87  90 
85  88 
83  87 

93   97 
91   95 
90   93 

100  104 
98  101 
96   99 

107  110 
104  108 
102  106 

113  117 
111  114 
109  112 

120  123 
118  121 
115  118 

127  130 
124  127 
122  125 

75  78 
73  77 

72  75 

81  85 
80  83 
78  81 

88   91 
86   89 
84   87 

94   97 
92   95 
90   93 

100  103 
98  101 
96   99 

106  110 
104  107 
102  105 

113  116 

110  114 
106  111 

119  122 
116  120 
114  117 

71  74 
69  72 
68  71 

77  80 
75  78 
74  77 

82   85 
81   84 
79   82 

88   91 
87   90 
85   88 

94   97 
92   95 
91   93 

100  103 
98  101 
96   99 

106  109 
104  107 
102  105^ 

112  115 
110  113 
108  110 

67  70 
66  68 
64  67 

72  75 
71  74 
70  73 

78   81 
76   79 

75   78 

83   86 

82   85 

81   83 

89   92 
87   90 
86   89 

94   97 
93   96 

91   94 

100  103 
98  101 
97   99 

106  108 
104  107 
102  105 

63  66 
62  65 
61  64 

'68  71 
67  70 
66  69 

74   76 
73   75 
71   74 

79   82 
78  80 
76   79 

84   87 
83   86 
82   84 

90   92 
88   90 
87   89 

95   98 
93   96 
92   94 

100  103 
98  101 
97   99 

60  63 
59  62 

58  61 

65  68 
64  67 
63  65 

70   73 
69   72 
68   70 

75   78 
74   76 
73   75 

80   83 
79   81 

77   80 

85   88 
84   86 
82   85 

90   9sJ 
89   91' 
87   90 

95   98 
94   96 
92   94 

57  60 
56  59 
55  58 

62  64 
61  63 
60  62 

67   69 
66   68 
65   67 

71   74 
70   73 
69   72 

76   79 
75   78 

74   76 

81   83 
80   82 
78   81 

86   88 
84   87 
83   85 

91   93 
89   93 
88   93 

55  57 
54  56 
53  55 

59  62 
58  61 
58  60 

64   66 
63   65 
62   64 

68   71 
67   70 
66  69 

73   75 

72   74 
71   73 

77   80 
76   79 
75   7t 

82   84 
81   83 
80   83 

86   89 
85   88 
84   86 

52  54 
53  $4 
51  53 

57  59 
56  58 
55  57 

61   63 
60   62 
59  61 

65   68 
64   67 
64   66 

70   73 
69  71 
68   70 

74   76 
73   75 
73   74 

78   81 
77   79 
76   78 

83   85 
82   84 
80  S3 

; 

190 


A    HANPflGOK    OF  MlvNTAt,   TtfSTS 


11 

I 

r 

Y 

0  1 

3  3 

4  5 

6  7 

0    I 

2  3 

( 

50  52 
49  51 
49  51 

54  56 
53  56 
53  55 

58  61 
58  60 
57  59 

63  65 
62  64 
61  63 

67   69 
66   68 
65   67 

71  73 
70  72 
69  71 

75   77 
74   76 
73   75 

48  50 
47  50 
47  49 

52  54 
51  53 
51  53 

56  58 

55  57 
55  57 

60  62 
59  61 

58  60 

64   66 
63   65 
62   64 

68  70 
67  69 
66  68 

72   74 
71   73 

70   72 

46  48 
46  48 

45  47 

SO  52 
49  51 
49  51 

54  56 

53  55 

53  55 

58  60 
57  59 
56  58 

62   64 
61   63 
60   62 

65  67 
65  67 
64  66 

69   71 
68   70 

68   70 

45  46 
44  46 
43  45 

48  50 
48  50 
47  49 

52  54 
51  53 
51  53 

56  58 
55  57 
54  56 

59   61 
59   61 
58   60 

63  65 
62  64 
62  63 

67   69 
66   68 
65   67 

43  45 

42  44 
42  44 

41  43 
41  43 

40  42 

46  48 
46  48 

45  47 

45  47 
44  46 
44  46 

50  52 
49  51 

49  51 

49  50 
48  50 

47  49 

S3  55 
53  55 

52  54 

52  54 
51  53 
51  52 

57   59 
56   58 
56   58 

55   57 
55   56 
54   56 

60  62 
60  62 
59  61 

59  60 
58  60 

57  59 

64   66 
64   65 
63   65 

62   64 
61   63 
61   62 

40  42 
40  41 
39  41 

43  45 
43  45 

42  44 

47  48 
46  48 
46  47 

50  52 
50  51 
49  51 

53   55 
53   55 

52   54 

57  58 
56  58 
56  57 

60   62 
59   61 
59   60 

39  40 
38  40 
38  40 

42  44 
42  43 
41  43 

45  47 
45  46 
44  46 

48  50 
48  50 
47  49 

52   53 
51   53 
51   52 

55  57 
54  56 

54  55 

58   60 
58   59 

57   59 

38  39 
37  39 
37  38 

41  42 
40  42 
40  41 

44  45 
43  45 
43  44 

47  49 
46  48 
46  48 

50   52 
50   51 
49   51 

53  55 
53  54 
52  54 

56   58 
56   57 

55   57 

36  38 
36  38 
36  37 

39  41 
39  41 
39  40 

42  44 
42  44 
42  43 

46  47 
45  47 
45  46 

49   50 
48   SO 

48   49 

52  53 
51  53 
51  52 

55   56 
54   56 
53   55 

35  37 
35  37 
35  36 

38  40 
38  39 
38  39 

41  43 
41  42 
40  42 

44  46 

44  45 
43  45 

47   49 
47   48 
46   48 

50  52 
50  51 

49  51 

53   55 
53   54 
52   54 

34  36 
34  36 

34  35 

37  39 
37  38 

37  38 

40  42 
40  41 
39  41 

43  44 
43  44 
42  44 

I 

46   47 
•  45   47 
45   46 

49  50 
48  50 
48  49 

51   53 
51   52 
51   52 

TABLE  OF  INTELLIGENCE  QUOTIENTS 


191 


III 

IV 

0   1 

3  3 

4  .', 

«  7 

0    1 

2  3 

4 

33   35 
33   35 
33   34 

36  38 
36  37 

35  37 

39  40 
39  40 
38  40 

42  43 
41  43 

41  42 

44   46 
44   46 
44   45 

47  49 
47  48 
46  48 

50 
50 
49 

32   34 
32   34 
32   33 

35  37 
35  36 
35  36 

38  39 
38  39 
37  39 

41  42 
40  42 
40  41 

43   45 
43   44 
43   44 

46  47 
46  47 

45  47 

49 
48 
48 

32   33 
31   33 
31   32 

34  36 
34  35 
34  35 

37  38 
37  38 
36  38 

40  41 
39  41 
39  40 

42  .44 
42   43 
41   43 

45  46 
44  46 
44  45 

47 
47 
46 

31   32 
31   32 
30   32 

34  35 
33  35 
33  34 

36  37 
36  37 
35  37 

39  40 
38  40 
38  39 

41   42 
41   42 
40   42 

44  45 
43  45 

43  44 

46 
46 
45 

30   31 
30   31 
30   31 

33  34 
32  34 
32  33 

35  36 
35  36 
34  36 

38  39 
37  39 

37  38 

40   41 
40   41 
39   41 

43  44 
42  44 

42  43 

45 
45 
44 

29   31 
29   30 
29   30 

32  33 
31  33 
31  32 

34  35 
34  .35 
34  35 

37  38 
36  38 
36  37 

39   40 
39   40 
38   40 

42  43 
41  43 
41  42 

44 
44 
43 

29   30 
28   30 
28   29 

31  32 
31  32 
31  32 

33  35 
33  34 
33  34 

36  37 
35  37 
35  36 

38   39 
38   39 
38   39 

41  42 
40  41 
40  41 

43 
43 

42 

28   29 
28   29 
28   29 

30  31 
30  31 
30  31 

33  34 
32  34 
32  33 

35  36 
35  36 
34  36 

37   38 
37   38 
37   38 

40  41 
39  40 
39  40 

42 
42 
41 

27   29 
27   28 
27   28 

27   28 
27   28 
26   27 

30  31 
29  31 
29  30 

29  30 
29  30 
29  30 

32  33 
32  33 
31  33 

31  32 
31  32 
31  32 

34  35 
34  35 
34  35 

33  35 
33  34 
33  34 

36   38 
36   37 
36   37 

36   37 
35   37 
35   36 

39  40 
38  40 
38  39 

38  39 
38  39 
37  38 

41 
41 
40 

40 
40 
39 

26   27 
26   27 
26   27 

28  29 
28  29 
28  29 

30  32 
30  31 
30  31 

33  34 
32  34 
32  33 

35   36 
35   36 
34   35 

37  38 
37  38 
37  38 

39 
39 

39 

26   27 
25   27 
23   26 

1 

28  29 
28  29 
27  28 

30  31 
30  31 
29  31 

32  33 
32  33 
32  33 

34   35 
34   35 
34   35 

36  37 
36  37 
36  37 

38 
38 
38 

192 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 


IS 


13 


14 


15 


0<f 

U 

20 

[ 

r 

7 

0 

1 

2 

1 

25   26 
25   26 
25   26 

o 

27   28 
27   28 
27   28 

29   30 
29  30 
29  30 

31  32 
31  32 
31  32 

33  34 
33  34 
33  34 

!J  3 

35  37 
35  36 
35  36 

4  5 

38  39 
37  38 
37  38 

3 

4 
5 

25   26 
25 
25 

27   28 
26   27 
26  27 

29   30 
28   30 
28   29 

31  32 
31  32 
30  31 

33  34 
33  34 
32  33 

35  36 
35  36 

34  35 

37  38 
37  38 
36  37 

6 
7 

8 

25 
25 
25 

26   27 
26   27 
26  27 

28   29 
28   29 
28   29 

30  31 
30  31 
30  31 

32  33 
32  33 

32  33 

34  35 
34  35 
34  35 

36  37 
36  37 
36  37 

9 
10 
11 

25 

26   27 
25   26 
25   26 

28   29 
27   28 

27   28 

29  30 
29  30 
29  30 

31  32 
31  32 
31  32 

33  34 
33  34 
33  34 

35  36 
35  36 
35  36 

0 

1 
2 

25   26 
25   26 
25   26 

27   28 
27   28 
27   28 

29  30 
29  30 
29  30 

31  32 
31  32 
30  31 

33  34 
33  34 
32  33 

35  36 
34  35 
34  35 

3 
4 
5 

25   26 
25 
25 

26   27 
26   27 

26   27 

28  29 
28  29 
28  29 

30  31 
30  31 
30  31 

32  33 
32  33 
32  33 

34  35 
34  35 
34  34 

6 

7 
8 

25 
25 
25 

26  27 
26  27 
26   27 

28  29 
28  29 
28  28 

30  31 
30  30 
29  30 

32  32 
31  32 

31  32 

33  34 
33  34 
33  34 

9 
10 
11 

25 

25   26 
25   26 
25   26 

27  28 
27  28 
27  28 

29  30 
29  30 
29  30 

31  32 
31  32 
31  32 

33  34 
33  34 
32  33 

0 
1 

25   26 
25   26 
25   26 

27  28 
27  28 
27  27 

29  30 
28  29 
28  29 

30  31 
30  31 
30  31 

32  33 
32  33 
32  33 

3 

25   26 
25 
25 

26  27 
26  27 
26  27 

28  29 
28  29 
28  29 

30  31 
30  31 
30  30 

32  33 
31  32 
31  32 

25 
25 
25 

26  27 
26  27 
26  27 

28  29 
27  28 
27  28 

29  30 
29  30 
29  30 

31  32 
31  32 
31  32 

9 
10 
U 

25- 
25 

25  26 
25  26 
25  26 

27  28 
27  28 
27  28 

29  30 
29  30 
29  29 

31  31 
30  31 
30  31 

• 

25  26 

27  28 

28  29 

30  31 

TABLE  OF  INTELLIGENCE  QUOTIENTS 


193 


^ 

r 

VI 

0    1 

Z   3 

4   5 

6   7 

0    1 

2    3 

4   5 

3 
4 
5 

150 
146  ISO 

6 

7 
8 

143  147 
140  143 
137  140 

ISO 
147  150 
143  147 

150 

9 
10 
11 

133  137 
131  134 
128  131 

140  144 
137  141 
134  138 

147  150 
144  147 
141  144 

150 
147  150 

0 
1 

2 

125  128 
123  126 
120  123 

131  135 
129  132 
126  129 

138  141 
135  138 
132  135 

144  147 
141  144 
138  141 

150 
147  150 
144  147 

150 

1 

Ef 

118  121 
116  119 
113  116 

124  127 
121  124 
119  122 

129  132 
127  130 
125  127 

135  138 
133  136 
130  133 

141  144 
139  141 
136  139 

147  150 
144  147 
141  144 

150 
147  150 

fl 

7 
8 

111  114 

109  112 
107  110 

117  120 
115  118 
113  115 

122  125 
120  123 
118  121 

128  131 
126  128 
123  126 

133  136 
131  134 
129  132 

139  142 
137  139 
134  137 

144  147 
142  145 
140  142 

9 

LO 
1 

105  108 
104  106 
102  105 

111  113 
109  111 
107  110 

116  119 
114  117 
112  115 

121  124 
119  122 
117  120 

126  129 
124  127 
122  125 

132  134 
129  132 
127  130 

137  140 
135  137 
132  135 

0 
1 

2 

100  103 
98  101 
97   99 

105  108 
103  106 
102  104 

110  113 
108  111 
106  109 

115  118 
113  116 
111  114 

120  123 
118  121 
116  119 

125  128 
123  126 
121  123 

130  133 
128  131 
126  128 

3 
4 
5 

95   98 
94   96 

92   95 

100  103 
99  101 
97   99 

105  107 
103  106 
102  104 

110  112 
108  110 
106  109 

114  117 
113  115 
111  113 

119  122 
117  120 
115  118 

124  126 
122  124 
120  122 

7 
8 

91   93 
90   92 
88  91 

96   98 
94   96 
93   95 

100  102 
99  101 
97  100 

105  107 
103  105 
102  104 

109  112 
108  110 
106  108 

114  116 
112  114 
110  113 

118  121 
117  119 
115  117 

9 
0 
1 

87  89 
86   88 
85   87 

91   94 
90  93 
89  91 

96  98 
94  97 
93  95 

100  103 
99  101 
97  100 

104  107 
103  105 
102  104 

109  111 
107  109 
106  108 

113  115 
112  114 
110  112 

194 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MKNTAI,  TESTS 


Of 

\ 

Sm 

r 

VJ 

*»     o 

[ 

4m 

0 

1 

8 

J. 

83   86 

82   84 
81   83 

o 

88  90 
86  89 

85  87 

92  94 
91  93 
89  91 

96  98 
95  97 
93  95 

100  102 
99  101 
97  99 

A     .  • 

104  106 
103  105 
101  103 

o 

108  111 
107  109 
105  107 

• 

80   82 
79   81 

78   80 

77   79 
76   78 

75   77 

84  86 
83  85 
82  84 

81  83 
80  82 
79  81 

88  90 
87  89 
86  88 

85  87 
84  86 
83  85 

92  94 
91  93 
90  92 

89  91 
87  89 
86  88 

96  98 
95  97 
94  96 

92  94 
91  93 
90  92 

100  102 
99  101 
98  100 

96   98 
95   97 
94   96 

104  106 
103  105 
102  104 

100  102 
99  101 
98  100 

10 

u 

74   76 
73   75 

72   74 

78  80 
77  79 
76  78 

82  83 
81  82 
80  82 

85  87 
84  86 
84  85 

89  91 
88  90 
87  89 

93   95 
92   93 
91   92 

96   98 
95   97 
94   96 

0 

1 

3 

71   73 
71   73 

70   72 

75  77 
74  76 
73  75 

79  80 
78  80 

77  79 

82  84 
81  83 
80  82 

86  88 
85  87 
84  86 

89   91 
88   90 

87   89 

93   95 
92   94 
91   93 

4 
5 

69   71 
68   70 
67   69 

72  74 
72  73 
71  73 

76  78 
75  77 
74  76 

79  81 
79  80 
78  79 

83  85 
82  84 
81  83 

86   88 
85   87 
84   86 

90   92 
89   91 

88   89 

6 

7 
X 

67   68 
66   68 
65   67 

70  72 
69  71 
69  70 

73  75 
73  74 
72  74 

77  78 
76  78 

75  77 

80  82 
79  81 

78  80 

83   85 
83   84 
82   83  ' 

87   88 
86   88 
85   87 

9 

10 

11 

65   66 
64   66 
63   65 

68  69 
67  69 
66  68 

71  73 
70  72 
70  71 

74  76 
73  75 
73  74 

77  79 
77  78 
76  78 

81   82 
80   82 
79   81 

84   86 
83   85 
82   84 

0 

1 

2 

63   64 
62   64 

61   63 

66  67 
65  67 
64  66 

69  70 
68  70 
67  69 

72  74 
71  73 
70  72 

75  77 
74  76 

73  75 

78   80 
77   79 

77   78 

81   83 
80   82 
80   81 

3 
4 
5 

7 

61   62 
60   62 

59   61 

59   60 
58   60 
58   59 

64  65 
63  65 
62  64 

62  63 
61  63 
61  62 

67  68 
66  68 
65  67 

65  66 
64  66 
64  65 

70  71 
69  71 
68  70 

68  69 
67  69 
66  68 

73  74 
72  74 
71  73 

71  72 
70  71 
69  71 

76   77 
75   77 
74   76 

74   75 
73   74 
72   74 

79   80 
78   80 
77   79 

77   78 
76   77 
76   77 

9 
10 
11 

57   59 
57   58 
56   58 

60  62 
60  61 
59  60 

63  64 
62  64 
62  63 

66  67 
65  67 
65  66 

69  70 
68  69 
67  $9 

71   73 
71   72 

70   72 

74   76 
74   75 

73   74 

TABLE  OF  INTELLIGENCE  QUOTIENTS 


195 


VI 


0  1 

2  3 

*   5 

6701 

2  3 

4   5 

56  57 
55  56 
55  56 

58  60 
58  59 
57  59 

61   63 
60   62 
60   61 

64   65   67   68 
63   65   66   68 
63   64   65   67 

69  71 
69  70 
68  70 

72   74 
72   73 
71   73 

54  55 
54  55 
53  54 

57  58 
56  58 
56  57 

59   61 
59   60 
58   60 

62   64  1  65   66 
62   63  !  64   66 
61   62   64   65 

68  69 
67  68 
66  68 

70   72 
70   71 
69   70 

53  54 
52  53 
52  53 

55  57 
55  56 
54  56 

58   59 
57   59 
57   58 

61   62 
60   61 
60   61 

63  65 
63  64 
62  63 

66  67 
65  67 
65  66 

68   70 
68   69 
67   69 

51  53 
51  52 

51  52 

54  55 
53  55 

53  54 

56   58 

56   57 
56   57 

59   60 
59   60 
58   59 

62  63 
61  62 
61  62 

64  65 
64  65 
63  64 

67   68 
66   67 
66   67 

50  51 
50  51 
49  50 

53  54 
52  53 
52  53 

55   56 
55   56 
54   55 

58   59 
57   58 
57   58 

60  61 
60  61 
59  60 

63  64 
62  63 
62  63 

65   66 
65   66 
64   65 

49  50 
48  50 
46  49 

51  53 

51  52 
50  52 

54   55 
53   55 
53   54 

56   57 
56   57 
55   56 

59  60 
58  59 
58  59 

61  62 
61  62 

60  61 

63   65 
63   64 
62   64 

48  49 
47  49 

47  48 

50  51 
50  51 
49  51 

52   54 
52   53 

52   53 

55   56 
54   56 
54   55 

57  58 
57  58 
56  58 

60  61 
59  60 
59  60 

62   63 
61   63 
61   62 

47  48 
46  47 
46  47 

49  50 
49  50 
48  49 

51   52 
51   52 
^50   52 

54   55 
53   54 
53   54 

56  57 
55  57 
55  56 

58  59 
58  59 
57  59 

61   62 
60   61 
60   61 

46  47 
45  46 
45  46 

48  49 
47  49 
47  48 

50   51 
50   51 
49   50 

52   54 
52   53 
52   53 

55  56 

54  55 
54  55 

57  58 
56  58 
56  57 

59   60 
59   60 
58   59 

45  46 
44  45 
44  45 

47  48 
46  48 
46  47 

49   50 
49   50 
48   49 

51   52 
51   52 
50   52 

53  55 
53  54 
53  54 

56  57 
55  56 
55  56 

58   59 
57   59 
57   58 

44  45 
43  44 
43  44 

46  47 
45  47 
45  46 

48   49 
48  49 
47   48 

50   51 
50   51 
49   50 

52  53 
52  53 
52  53 

54  56 
54  55 
54  55 

57   58 
56   57 

56   57 

43  44 
42  43 
42  43 

45  46 
44  46 
44  45 

47   48 
47   48 
46   47 

49   50 
49   50 
48   49 

51  52 
51  52 
50  52 

53  54 
53  54 
53  54 

55   56 
55   56 
55   56 

196 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MSNTAI,  TESTS 


V 

VI 

0  1 

2  3 

4   5 

6   7 

0   1 

2  3 

4   0 

42  43 
41  43 
41  42 

44  45 
44  45 
43  44 

46   47 
46   47 
45   46 

48  49 
43   49 
47   48 

50   51 
50   51 
49   50 

52  53 
52  53 
51  52 

54   55 
54   55 
53   55 

41  42 
41  42 
40  41 

43  44 
43  44 

42  43 

45   46 
45   46 

44   45 

47   48 
47   48 
46   47 

49   50 
49   50 
48   49 

51  52 
51  52 
50  51 

53   54 
53   54 
52   53 

40  41 
40  41 
39  40 

42  43 
42  43 
41  42 

44   45 
44   45 
43   44 

46   47 
46   47 
45   46 

48   49 
48   49 

47   48 

50  51 
50  51 
49  50 

52   53 
52   53 
51   52 

39  40 
39  40 
39  40 

41  42 
41  42 
41  42 

43   44 
43   44 
43   44 

45   46 
45   46 
45   46 

47   48 
47   48 
47   48 

49  50 
49  50 
48  49 

51   52 
51   52 
50   51 

39  40 
38  39 
38  39 

40  41 
40  41 
40  41 

42   43 
42   43 
42   43 

44   45 
44   45 
44   45 

46   47 
46   47 
46   47 

48  49 
48  49 
48  48 

50   51 
50   51 
49   50 

38  39 
38  39 
37  38 

40  41 
39  40 
39  40 

42   43 
41   42 
41   42 

43   44 
43   44 
43   44 

45   46 
45   46 
45   46 

47  48 
47  48 
47  48 

49   50 
49   50 
48   49 

37  38 
37  38 
37  38 

39  40 
39  40 
38  39 

41   42 
41   42 
40   41 

43   44 
42   43 
42   43 

45   45 
44   45 
44   45 

46  47 
46  47 
46  47 

48   49 
48   49 
48   49 

36  37 
36  37 
36  37 

38  39 
38  39 
38  39 

40   41 
40   41 
40   41 

42   43 
42   43 

41   42 

44   45 
43   44 
43   44 

46  46 
45  46 

45  46 

47   48 
47   48 
47   48 

36  37 
36  36 
35  36 

38  38 
37  38 

37  38 

39   40 
39   40 
39   40 

41   42 
41   42 
41   42 

43   44 
43   44 
42   43 

45  46 
44  45 

44  45 

46   47 
46   47 
46   47 

35  36 
35  36 
35  36 

37  38 
37  38 
36  37 

39   40 
38   39 
38   39 

40   41 
40   41 
40   41 

42   43 
42   43 
42   43 

44  45 
44  45 
43  44 

46   47 
45   46 
45   46 

35  35 
34  35 
34  35 

36  37 
36  37 

36  37 

38   39 
38   39 
38   38 

40   41 
39   40 
39   40 

41   42 
41   42 
41   42 

43  44 
43  44 
43  44 

45   46 
45   46 

44   45 

34  35 
34  35 
34  34 

36  37 
35  36 

35  36 

37   38 
37   38 
37   38 

39   40 
39   40 
39   39 

41   42 
41   41 
40   41 

42  43 
42  43 
42  43 

44   45 
44   45 

44   45 

33   34 

35  36 

37   38 

38   39 

40   41 

42  43 

43   44 

TABLE  OF  INTELLIGENCE  QUOTIENTS 
vn  vin 


197 


01 

8 

X 

150 

4  9 

10 

11 

147  150 
145  148 
143  145 

ISO 
148  150 

o 
1 

140  143 
138  140 
135  138 

145  148 
143  145 
140  143 

150 
148  150 
145  148 

150 

3 
4 
3 

133  136 
131  134 

129  132 

138  141 
136  139 
134  136 

143  145 
141  143 
138  141 

148  150 
145  148 
143  145 

150 
148  150 

~> 
« 
7 
8 

127  130 
125  128 
124  126 

132  134 
130  132 
128  130 

136  139 
134  137 
133  135 

141  143 
139  141 

137  139 

146  148 
143  146 
141  144 

150 
148  150 
146  148 

ISO 

9 
10 
11 

122  124 
120  122 
118  121 

126  128 
124  127 
123  125 

130  133 
129  131 
127  129 

135  137 
133  135 
131  133 

139  141 
137  140 
135  138 

144  146 
142  144 

140  142 

148  150 
146  148 
144  146 

150 
14S  1 

0 

1 
;i 

117  119 
115  117 
114  116 

121  123 
119  121 
118  120 

125  127 
123  126 
122  124 

129  131 
128  130 
126  128 

133  136 
132  134 
130  132 

138  140 
136  138 
134  136 

143  144 
140  142 
138  140 

146  1 

144  1 
142  1 

3 
4 

5 
A 

6 

1 

g 

112  114 
111  113 
109  111 

108  110 
106  108 
103  107 

116  118 
115  117 
113  115 

112  114 
110  112 
109  111 

120  122 
119  121 
117  119 

115  117 
114  116 
113  115 

124  126 
123  125 
121  123 

119  121 
118  120 
116  118 

128  130 
126  128 
125  127 

123  125 
122  124 
120  122 

132  134 
130  132 
129  131 

127  129 
125  127 
124  126 

136  138 
134  136 
132  134 

131  133 
129  131 
128  130 

140  1 
138  1 
136  1 

135  1 
133  1 
131  1 

B 
10 

11 

104  106 
103  104 
102  103 

107  109 
106  108 
105  107 

111  113 
110  112 
109  110 

115  117 
114  115 
112  114 

119  120 
117  119 
116  118 

122  124 
12!  123 
119  121 

126  128 
125  126 
123  125 

130  1 
128  1 

127  1 

0 

1 

100  102 
99  101 

98   99 

104  105 
102  104 
101  103 

107  109 
106  108 
105  106 

111  112 
109  111 
108  110 

114  116 
113  115 
112  113 

118  120 
117  118 
115  117 

121  123 
120  122 
119  120 

125  1 
124  1 
122  1 

3 
4 

5 
7 
6 
7 
8 

97   99 
96   97 
94   96 

93   95 
92   94 
91   93 

100  102 
99  101 
98  100 

97   98 
96   97 
95   96 

103  105 
102  104 
101  103 

100  102 
99  101 
98  100 

107  109 
106  108 
104  106 

103  105 
102  104 
101  103 

110  112 
109  111 
108  110 

•107  108 
106  107 
104  106 

114  116 
113  114 
111  113 

110  112 
109  111 
108  109 

117  119 
116  118 
115  116 

113  115 
112  114 
111  113 

121  1 
119  1 
118  1 

117  1 
115  ] 
114  ] 

9 
10 
11 

90   92 
89   91 
89   90 

94   95 
93   94 
92  93 

97   99 
96  98 

95   97 

100  102 
99  101 
98  100 

103  105 
102  '104 
101  103 

107  108 
105  107 
104  106 

HO  111 
108  110 
108  109 

113  : 
112 
111 

198 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL 


VI 

I 

VI 

[I 

0  1 

3  3 

4  5 

6  7 

0  1 

2    3 

4   5 

6 

0 

1 

2 

88  89 
87  88 
86  87 

91  92 
90  91 
89  90 

94  95 
93  94 
92  93 

97  99 
96  98 

95  97 

100  102 
99  101 
98  100 

103  105 
102  104 
101  103 

106  108 
105  107 
104  106 

109 
108 
107 

3 

85  86 
84  86 
83  85 

88  90 
87  89 
86  88 

91  93 
90  92 
89  91 

94  96 
93  95 
92  94 

97  99 
96  98 
95  97 

100  102 
99  101 
98  100 

103  105 
102  104 
101  103 

106 
105 
104 

82  84 
82  83 
81  82 

85  87 
85  86 
84  85 

88  90 
87  89 
87  88 

91  93 
90  92 
90  91 

94  96 
93  95 
92  94 

97   99 
96   98 
95   97 

100  102 
99  101 
98  100 

103 
102 
101 

9 
10 

1.1 

80  82 
79  81 
79  80 

83  84 
82  84 
81  83 

86  87 
85  86 
84  86 

89  90 
88  89 
87  88 

91  93 
91  92 
90  91 

94   96 
93   95 
93   94 

97   99 
96   98 
95   97 

100 
99 
98 

0 

I 

78  79 
77  79 
76  78 

81  82 
80  81 
79  81 

83  85 
83  84 
82  83 

86  88 
85  87 
85  86 

89  90 
88  90 
87  89 

92   93 
91   92 
90   91 

94   96 
94   95 
93   94 

97 
96 
95 

a 
\ 

5 

76  77 
75  76 
74  76 

78  80 
78  79 
77  78 

81  83 
80  82 
80  81 

84  85 
83  84 

82  84 

86  88 
86  87 
85  86 

89   90 
88   90 
88   89 

92   93 
91   92 
90   92 

95 
94 
93 

w  r-  so 

74  75 
73  74 
73  74 

76  78 
76  77 
75  76 

79  80 
78  80 
78  79 

82  83 
81  82 
80  82 

84  85 
83  85 
83  84 

87   88 
86   87 
85   87 

89   91 
88   90 
88   89 

92 
91 

90 

•» 
0 

1 

72  73 
71  73 
71  72 

74  76 
74  75 

73  75 

77  78 
76  78 
76  77 

79  81 
79  80 
78  80 

82  83 
81  83 
81  82 

85   86 
84   85 
83   85 

87   89 
87   88 
86   87 

90 
89 
88 

0 

I 
•; 

70  71 
69  71 

69  70 

73  74 
73  73 
71  73 

75  76 
74  76 
74  75 

78  79 
77  78 
76  78 

80  81 
79  81 
79  80 

83   84 
82   83 

81   82 

85   86 
84   86 
84   85 

88 
87 
86 

8 
•1 

5 

68  70 
68  69 
67  68 

71  72 
70  71 
70  71 

73  74 
73  74 
72  73 

76  77 
75  76 
74  76 

78  79 
77  79 
77  78 

81   82 
80   81 
79   80 

83   84 
82   84 
82   83 

85 
85 
84 

6 
7 

X 

67  68 
66  67 
66  67 

69  70 
69  70 
68  69 

71  73 
71  72 
70  72 

74  75 
73  75 
73  74 

76  77 
76  77 
75  76 

79   80 
78   79 
77   79 

81   82 
80   82 
80   81 

83 
83 

82 

!> 
0 

1 

65  66 
65  66 
64  65 

67  69 
67  68 
67  68 

70  71 
69  71 
69  70 

72  73 
72  73 
71  72 

74  76 

74  75 
73  75 

77   78 
76   77 

76   77  | 

79   80 
79   80 
78   79 

81 
81 

80 

TABLE  O'F  INTSLLH3E-NCE 


199 


0    1 

VI 

2  3 

I 
4   5 

6   7 

0  1 

vra 

2    3  f  4   5 

6  1 

0 

1 

64   65 
63   64 
63   64 

66  67 
65  67 

65  66 

68  69 
68  69 
67  68 

71   72 
70  71 
69   71 

73  74 
72  73 
72  73 

75   76 
75   76 
74   75 

77  79 
77  78 
76  77 

80  81 
79  80 
78  79 

3 
4 

5 

62   63 
62   63 

61   62 

64  66 
64  65 
64  65 

67  68 
66  67 
66  67 

69   70 
68   70 
68   69 

71  72 
71  72 
70  71 

73   75 
73   74 

72   73 

76  77 
75  76 
74  76 

78  79 
77  78 

77  78 

6 

8 

61   62 
61   62 
60   61 

63  64 
63  64 
62  63 

65  66 
65  66 
64  65 

67   69 
67   68 
67   68 

70  71 
69  70 
69  70 

72   73 
71   72 
71   72 

74  75 
73  75 
73  74 

76  77 
76  77 
75  76 

9 
10 
11 

60   61 
59   60 
59   60 

62  63 
61  62 
61  62 

64  65 
63  65 
63  64 

66   67 
66   67 
65   66 

68  69 
68  69 
67  68 

70   71 
70   71 
69   70 

72  74 
72  73 
71  73 

75  76 

74  75 
74  75 

0 
1 
2 

58   59 
58   59 
58   59 

60  62 
60  61 
60  61 

63  64 
62  63 
62  63 

65   66 
64   65 
64   65 

67  68 
66  67 
66  67 

69   70 
63   69 
68   69 

71  72 
70  71 

70  71 

73  74 

72  74 
72  73 

3 

4 
5 

57   58 
57   58 
56   57 

59  60 
59  60 
58  59 

61  62 
61  62 
60  61 

63   64 
63   64 
62   63 

65  66 
65  66 
64  66 

67   68 
67  '  68 
67   68 

69  71 
69  70 
69  70 

72  73 
71  72 
71  72 

ft 

7 
s 

56   57 
56   57 
55   56 

58  59 
58  59 

57  58 

60  61 
60  61 

59  60 

62   63 
62   63 
61   62 

64  65 
64  65 
63  64 

66   67 
66   67 
65   66 

68  69 
68  69 

67  68 

70  71 
70  71 
69  70 

9 
10 
11 

55   56 
55   56 
54   55 

57  58 

57  58 
56  57 

59  60 
59  60 
58  59 

61   62 
60   61 
60   61 

63  64 
62  63 
62  63 

65   66 
64   65 
64   65 

67  68 
66  67 

66  67 

69  70 
63  69 
68  69 

0 

1 
2 

54   55 
.54   55 
53   54 

56  57 
55  56 
55  56 

58  59 
57  58 
57  58 

60   61 
59   60 

59   60 

62  63 
61  62 
61  62 

64   65 
63   64 
63   64 

65  66 
65  66 
65  66 

67  68 
67  68 
66  67 

3 
4 
5 

53   54 
53   54 

52   53 

55  56 
54  55 

54  55 

57  58 
56  57 
56  57 

59   60 
58   59 
58   59 

60  61 
60  61 
60  61 

62   63 
62   63 
62   62 

64  65 
64  65 
63  64 

66  67 
66  67 
65  66 

6 
7 

8 

52   S3 
52   53 

51   52 

54  55 
53  54 
53  54 

56  57 
55  56 
55  56 

57   58 
57   58 
57   58 

59  60 
59  60 
59  60 

61   62 
61   62 
60   61 

63  64 
63  64 
62  63 

65  66 
64  65 
64  65 

e 

10 

11 

51   52 
51   52 
50   51 

53  54 
52  53 
52  53 

55  56 
54  55 
54  55 

56   57 
56   57 
'  56   57 

58  59 
58  59 

58  59 

60   61 
60   61 

59   60 

62  63 
62  62 
61  62 

64  65 
63  64 
63  64 

200 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 


0  1 

VI 

20 

I 

1 

vi: 

[I 

50  51 
50  51 
49  50 

o 

52   53 
52   52 
51   52 

54  55 

53  54 
53  54 

55  56 
55  56 

55  56 

57  58 
57  58 
57  57 

2  3 

59  60 
59  60 
58  59 

4  5 

61  62 
60  61 
60  61 

49  50 
49  50 

49  49 

51   52 
51   52 
50   51 

53  54 
52  53 
52  53 

54  55 
54  35 
54  55 

56  57 
56  57 
56  56 

58  59 
58  59 
57  58 

60  61 
59  60 
59  60 

48  49 
48  49 
48  49 

50   51 
50   51 
50   50 

52  53 
51  52 
51  52 

54  54 
S3  54 
53  54 

55  56 
55  56 
55  56 

57  58 
57  58 
56  57 

59  60 
58  59 
58  59 

43  48 
47  48 
47  48 

49   50 
49   SO 

49   50 

51  52 
51  52 
50  51 

53  53 

52  53 

52  53 

54  55 
54  55 
54  55 

56  57 
56  57 
55  56. 

58  59 
57  58 
57  58 

47  47 

43   49 

50  51 

52  53 

53  54 

55  56 

57  58 

IX 


150 
148  150 
146  148 

ISO 

144  146 
142  144 
140  142 

148  150 
146  148 
144  146 

150 
14S  150 

139  141 
137  139 
135  137 

142  144 
141  143 
139  141 

146  148 
144  146 
143  145 

150 
148  150 
146  148 

150 

133  135 
132  134 
130  132 

137  139 
135  137 
134  136 

141  143 
139  141 

138  139 

144  146 
143  145 
141  143 

148  150 
146  148 
145  147 

150 
148  150 

129  130 
127  129 
126  127 

132  134 
131  133 
129  131 

136  138 
U4  136 
133  134 

139  141 
138  140 
136  138 

143  145 
141  143 
140  141 

146  148 
145  147 
143  145 

ISO 
148  150 
146  148 

134  126 
123  12S 
121  123 

128  129 
126  128 
125  126 

131  133 
130  131 
128  130 

135  136 
133  135 
131  U3 

138  140 
136  138 
135  137 

142  144 
140  142 
138  140 

145  147 
143  145 
142  143 

120  122 
119  120 
116  119 

123  125 
122  124 
151  123 

127  128 
12S  127 
124  126 

130  132 
129  130 
127  129 

133  13S 
132  134 
131  132 

137  138 
135  137 
134  136 

140  142 
UO  140 
137  139 

116  US 
113  U7 

m  HS 

119  121 
118  lit) 
JT7  «9 

123  124 
121  123 
120  123 

126  128 
125  12« 
133  125 

129  131 
138  129 
J25  m 

132  134 
131  133 

1.30  iai 

136  U7 
134  1W 
133  134 

TABU  OF  INTELLIGENCE  QUOTIENTS 


201 


IX 

X 

0    1 

2   3 

4   5 

6   7 

0   1 

3    3 

4   5 

113  114 
111  113 
110  112 

116  117 
115  116 
113  115 

119  120 
118  119 
116  118 

122  124 
121  122 
119  121 

125  127 

124  125 
122  124 

128  130 
127  128 
125  127 

131  133 
130  132  ^ 
129  130 

109  111 

108  110 
107  108 

112  114 
111  113 
110  111 

115  117 
114  116 
113  114 

118  120 
117  119 
116  117 

121  123 
120  122 

119  ,  120 

124  126 
123  125 
122  123 

127  129 
126  128 
125  126 

106  107 
105  106 
104  105 

109  110 
108  109 
107  108 

112  113 
111  112 
110  111 

115  116 
114  115 
113  114 

118  119 
117  118 
116  117 

121  122 
120  121 
118  120 

124  125 
122  124 
121  123 

103  104 
102  103 
101  103 

106  107 
105  106 
104  105 

109  110 
108  109 
107  108 

111  113 
110  112 
109  111 

114  116 
113  115 
112  114 

117  119 
116  118 
115  117 

120  122 
119  120 
118  119 

100  101 
99  101 
98  100 

103  104 
102  103 
101  102 

106  107 
105  106 
104  105 

108  110 
107  109 
106  108 

111  113 
110  111 
109  110 

114  115 
113  114 
112  113 

117  118 
116  117 
115  116 

97   99 
96   98 
96   97 

100  101 
99  100 
98  100 

103  104 
102  103 
101  102 

105  107 
105  106 
104  105 

108  110 
107  108 
106  107 

111  112 
110  111 
109  110 

113  115 
112  114 
111  113 

95   96 

94   95 
93   94 

97   99 
96   98 
96   97 

100  101 
99  100 
98  100 

103  104 
102  103 
101  102 

105  106 
104  106 
103  104 

108  109 
107  108 
106  107 

110  112 
110  111 
108  110 

92   94 
92   93 
91   92 

95   96 
94   95 
93   95 

98   99 
97   98 
96   97 

100  101 
99  100 
98  100 

103  104 
102  103 
101  102 

105  106 
104  106 
104  105 

108  109 
107  108 
106  107 

90   91 
89   91 
89   90 

93   94 
92   93 
91   92 

95   96 
94   96 
93   95 

98   99 
97   98 
96   97 

100  101 
99  101 
98  100 

103  104 
102  103 
101  102 

105  106 
104  106 
103  105 

88   89 
87   88 
86   88 

90   92 
90   91 
89   90 

93   94 
92   93 
91   92 

95   96 
94   96 
94   95 

98   99 
97   98 
96   97 

100  101 
99  101 
98  100 

102  104 
102  103 
101  102 

86   87 

85   86 
84   86 

88   89 
87   89 
87   88 

91   92 
90   91 
89   90 

93   94 
92   93 
92   93 

95   97 
95   96 
94   95 

98   99 
97   98 
96   97 

100  101 
99  101 
99  100 

84   85 
83   84 
83   84 

86   87 
85   87 
85   86 

88   90 
88   89 
87   88 

91   92 
90   91 
89   91 

93   94 
92   94 
92   93 

95   97 
95   96 
94   95 

98   99 
97   98 
96   97 

202 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAI,  TESTS 


0    1 

IX 

2    3  |  4   5 

6   7 

0  I 

X 

2  3 

4   5 

0 

1 

2 

82   83 
81   82 
81   82 

84   85 
84   85 
83   84 

86  88 
86  87 
85  86 

89   90 
88   89 

87   88 

91  92 
90  91 
90  91 

93  94 
93  94 
92  93 

96  97 
95   96 
94   95 

3 
4 
.> 

80   81 
79   81 
79   80 

82   83 
82   83 
81   82 

85  86 
84  85 
83  84 

87   88 
86   87 
85   87 

89  90 
88  89 
88  89 

91  92 
91  92 
90  91 

93   95 
93   94 
92   93 

« 
1 

8 

78   79 
78   79 

77   78 

80   82 
80   81 
79   80 

83  84 
82  83 
82  83 

85   86 
84   85 

84   85 

87  88 
86  88 
86  87 

89  90 
89  90 
88  89 

91   92 
91   92 
90   91 

0 
10 
11 

77   78 
76   77 
76   77 

79   80 
78   79 
78   79 

81  82 
80  81 
80  81 

83   84 
82   84 
82   83 

85  86 
85  86 

84  85 

87  88 
87  88 
86  87 

89   91 
89   90 
88   89 

, 

1 

I 

75   76 
75   76 

74   75 

77   78 
77   78 
76   77 

79  80 
79  80 
78  79 

81   82 
81   82 
80   81 

83  84 
83  84 
82  83 

85  87 
85  86 
84  85 

88   89 
87   88 
86   87 

3 
4 
5 

74   75 
73   74 
73   74 

76   77 
75   76 
75   76 

78  79 
77  78 
77  78 

80   81 
79   80 
79   80 

82  83 
81  82 
81  82 

84  85 
83  84 

83  84 

86   87 
85   86 
85   86 

6 

7 
K 

72   73 
72   73 
71   72 

74   75 
74   75 
73   74 

76  77 
76  77 
75  76 

78   79 
78   79 

77   78 

80  81 
80  81 
79  80 

82  83 
82  83 

81  82 

84   85 
84   85 
83   84 

9 

10 
11 

71   72 
70   71 
70   71 

73   74 
72   73 
72   73 

75  76 
74  75 
74  75 

77   77 
76   77 
76   77 

78  79 
78  79 
78  79 

80  81 
80  81 
79  80 

82   83 
82   83 
81   82 

0 

1 

8 

69   70 
69   70 
68   69 

71   72 
71   72 
70   71 

73  74 
73  74 
72  73 

75   76 
75   76 

74   75 

77  78 
77  78 
76  77 

79  80 
78  79 
78  79 

81   82 
80   81 
80   81 

3 
4 
3 

68   69 
68   69 
67   68 

70   71 
69   70 
69   70 

72  73 
71  72 
71  72 

74   75 
73   74 
73   74 

76  77 
75  76 
75  76 

77  78 
77  78 
76  77 

79   80 
79   80 
78   79 

6 

7 
8 

67   68 
66   67 
66   67 

69   70 
68   69 
68   69 

70  71 
70  71 
70  71 

72   73 
72   73 
71   72 

74  75 
74  75 
73  74 

76  77 
76  76 
75  76 

78   79 
77   78 
77   78 

9 
0 

1 

66   66 
65   66 
65   66 

67   68 
67   68 
67   67 

69  70 
69  70 
68  69 

71   72 
71   71 
70   71 

73  74 
72  73 
72  73 

75  76 
74  75 

74  75 

76   77 
76   77 
76   76 

TABLE  OF  INTELLIGENCE  QUOTIENTS 


203 


IX 


0    1 

3   3 

4   5 

6   7 

0    1 

2   3 

4   5 

64   65 
64   65 
64   64 

66  67 
66   67 
65   66 

68   69 
68   68 
67   68 

70  71 
69   70 
69   70 

71   72 

71   72 
71   72 

73   74 
73   74 

72   73 

75   76 
75   76 
74   75 

63   64 
63   64 
62   63 

65   66 
65   66 
64   65 

67   68 
66   67 
66   67 

68   69 
68   69 
68  69 

70   71 
70   71 
69   70 

72   73 
72   72 
71   72 

74   75 
73   74 
73   74 

62   63 
62   63 
61   62 

64   65 
63   64 
63   64 

66   66 
65   66 
65   66 

67   68 
67   68 
67   67 

69   70 
69   70 
68   69 

71   72 
70   71 
70   71 

72   73 
72   73 
72   73 

61   62 
61   62 
60   61 

63   64 
62   63 
62   63 

64   65 

64   65 
64   65 

66   67 
66   67 
65   66 

68   69 
67   68 
67   68 

70   70 
69   70 
69   70 

71   72 
71   72 
70   71 

60   61 

62  63 

63   64 

65   66 

67   68 

68   69 

70   71 

x: 

XI 

r 

150 
148  150 

147  148 
145  147 
144  145 

150 
148  150 
147  148 

150 

142  144 
141  142 
139  141 

145  147 
144  145 
142  144 

148  150 
147  149 
145  147 

150 
149  150 

138  139 
136  138 
135  136 

141  142 

139  141 
138  139 

144  145 
142  144 
141  142 

147  149 
145  147 
144  145 

150 
149  ISO 
147  149 

150 

133  135 
132  134 
131  132 

136  138 
135  137 
134  135 

139  141 
138  140 
137  138 

142  144 
141  143 
140  141 

146  147 
144'  146 
143  144 

149  150 
147  149 
146  147 

150 
149  150 

129  131 
128  130 
127  129 

132  134 
131  133 
130  131 

135  137 
134  136 
133  134 

138  140 
137  139 
136  137 

141  143 
140  141 
139  140 

144  146 
143  144 
142  143 

147  149 
146  147 
144  146 

126  127 
125  126 

124  135 

129  130 
127  129 
127  128 

131  133 

130  132 
129  131 

134  136 
133  135 
132  133 

137  139 
13*  137 

133  136 

140  142 
139  140 
138  139 

143  144 
142  143 
140  143 

204 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 


Of 

XI 

A      Q 

: 

XI 

20 

I 

0 

1 

2 

1 

122  124 
121  122 
120  121 

*5    o 

125  126 
124  125 
123  124' 

128  129 
127  128 
126  127 

131  132 
129  131 
128  130 

135  135 
132  134 
131  132 

m 

136  138 
135  136 

134  135 

4   5 

139  140 
138  139 
136  138 

3 
4 
5 

9 

6 

7 
8 

119  120 
118  119 
117  118 

116  117 
115  116 
114  115 

122  123 
120  122 
119  121 

118  120 
117  119 
116  118 

124  126 
123  125 
122  123 

121  122 
120  121 
119  120 

127  128 
126  127 
125  126 

124  125 
123  124 
122  123 

130  131 
129  130 
127  12* 

126  128 
125  126 
124  125 

132  134 
131  133 
130  131 

129  130 
128  129 

127  128 

135  137 
134  135 
133  134 

132  133 
130  132 
129  131 

9 
10 
11 

113  114 
112  113 
111  112 

115  117 
114  116 
114  115 

118  119 
117  118 
116  117 

120  122 
119  121 
119  120 

123  124 
122  123 
121  122 

126  127 
125  126 
124  125 

128  129 
127  128 
126  127 

0 

1 
2 

110  111 

109  110 
108  109 

113  114 
112  113 
111  112 

115  116 

114  115 
113  114 

118  119 
117  118 
116  117 

120  121 
119  120 
118  119 

123  124 
122  123 
120  122 

125  126 
124  125 
123  124 

3 
4 
5 

10 

6 
7 

8 

107  109 
107  108 
106  107 

105  106 
104  105 
103  104 

110  111 
109  110 
108  109 

107  108 
106  108 
106  107 

112  113 
111  113 
110  112 

110  111 
109  110 
108  109 

115  116 
114  115 
113  114 

112  113 
111  112 
110  111 

117  118 
116  117 
115  116 

114  116 
113  115 
113  114 

120  121 
119  120 
118  119 

117  118 
116  117 
115  116 

122  123 
121  122 
120  121 

119  120 
118  119 
117  119 

9 
10 
11 

102  104 
102  103 
101  102 

105  106 
104  105 
103  104 

107  108 
106  107 
105  107 

109  111 
109  110 
108  109 

112  113 
111  112 
110  111 

114  115 
113  114 
112  114 

116  118 
115  117 
115  116 

0 

1 
2 

100  101 
99  101 
98   99 

102  104 
102  103 
101  102 

105  106 
104  105 
103  104 

107  108 
106  107 
105  106 

109  110 
108  110 
107  109 

111  113 
111  112 
110  111 

114  115 
113  114 
112  113 

3 
4 
5 
11 

6 

7 
8 

98   9? 
97   98 
96   98 

96  97 
95   96 
94   96 

100  101 
99  100 
99  100 

98   99 
97   98 
97   98 

102  103 
102  103 
101  102 

100  101 
99  100 
99  100 

104  106 

104  105 
103  104 

102  103 
102  103 
101  102 

107  108 
106  107 
105  106 

104  106 
104  105 
103  104 

109  110 
108  109 
107  108 

107  108 
106  107 
105  106 

111  112 
110  112 
110  111 

109  110 

.108  109 
107  108 

9 
10 
11 

94  .95, 
93  .94 
92   94 

96   97 
9S  96 
95   96 

:  98   99 
97-   98 
97   98 

100  101 
99  100 
99  100 

102  103 
101  102 
101  102 

104  105 
104  105 
103  104 
1 

106  107 
106  107 
105  106 

TABU*  QF  INTELLIGENCE  QUOTIENTS 


205 


XI 

XII 

0    1 

8  8 

4  5 

6  7 

0    1 

2   3 

*  « 

92   93 
91   92 
90   91 

94  95 
93  94 
92  94 

96  97 
95  96 
95  96 

98  99 
97  98 
97  98 

100  101 
99  100 
99  100 

102  103 
101  103 
101  102 

104  105 
104  105 
103  104 

90   91 
89   90 
89   90 

92  93 
91  92 
91  92 

94  95 
93  94 
93  94 

96  97 
95  96 
95  96 

98   99 
97   99 

97   98 

100  101 
100  101 
99  100 

102  103 
102  103 
101  102 

88   89 
87   88 
87   88 

90  91 
89  90 
89  90 

92  93 
91  92 
91  92 

94  95 
93  94 
93  94 

96   97 
95   96 
95   96 

98   99 
97   98 

97   98 

100  101 
99  100 
99  100 

86   87 
86   87 
85   86 

88  89 
83  89 
87  83 

90  91 
90  91 
89  90 

92  93 
92  93 

91  92 

94   95 
94   95 
93   94 

96   97 
96   97 
95   96 

98   99 
97   98 

97   98 

85   86 
84   85 
84   85 

87  88 
86  87 
85  86 

89  90 
88  89 
87  88 

90  91 
90  91 
89  90 

92   93 
92   93 
91   92 

94   95 
94   95 
93   94 

96   97 
96   97 
95   96 

83   84 
83   84 
82   83 

85  86 
84  85 
84  85 

87  88 
86  87 
86  87 

89  90 
88  89 
83  89 

91   92 
90   91 
89   90 

93   93 
92   93 
91   92 

94   95 
94   95 
93   94 

82   83 
81   82 
81   82 

83  84 
83  84 
82  83 

85  86 
85  86 
84  85 

87  88 
87  83 
86  87 

89   90 
83   89 
88   89 

91   92 
90   91 
90   91 

93   94 
92   93 
92   93 

80   81 
80   81 
79   80 

82  83 
81  82 
81  82 

84  85 
83  84 
83  84 

86  86 
85  86 

85  85 

87   88 
87   83 
86   87 

89   90 
89   90 
88   89 

91   92 
90   91 
90   91 

79   80 
78   79 
78   79 

80  81 
80  81 
79  80 

82  83 
82  83 

81  82 

84  85 
84  84 

83  84 

86   87 
85   86 
85   86 

88   83 
87   88 

87   87 

89   90 
89   90 
88   89 

77   78 
77   78 
76   77 

79  80 
79  79 
78  79 

81  82 
80  81 
80  81 

83  83 
82  83 
82  82 

84   85 
84   85 
83   84 

86   87 
86   86 
85   86 

88   89 
87   88 
87   88 

76   77 
75   76 
75   76 

78  79 
77  78 
77  78 

79  80 
79  80 
79  79 

81  82 
81  82 
80  81 

83   84 
82   83 
82   83 

85   85 
84   85 
84   85. 

86   87 
86   87 
85   86 

75   76 

74   75 
74   75 

76  77 
76  77 

76  76 

78  79 
78  78 

77  78 

80  81 
79  80 
79  80 

81   82 
81   82 
81   81 

83   84 
83   84 
82   83 

85   86 
84   85 
84   85 

73   74 

75   76 

77   78 

78  79 

SO   SI 

82   S3 

83   34 
! 

206 


A  HANDBOOK  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 
XIII  XIV 


0   I 

3   3 

4   5 

6    7 

0    1 

o    3 

4    5 

150 

149  150 
147  149 
146  147 

150 
149  150 

144  146 
143  144 
142  143 

147  149 
146  147 
145  146 

ISO 
149  150 
147  149 

150 

140  142 
139  140 
•138  139 

143  145 
142  143 
141  142 

146  147 
145  146 
143  145 

149  150 
147  149 
146  147 

150 
149  150 

137  138 
136  137 
134  136 

139  141 
138  140 
137  138 

142  143 
141  142 
140  141 

145  146 
143  145 
142  143 

147  149 
146  147 
145  146 

150 
149  150 
147  149 

150 

133  135 
132  133 
131  132 

136  137 
135  136 
134  135 

138  140 
137  139 
135  137 

141  142 
140  141 
139  140 

144  145 
142  144 

141  142 

146  148 
145  146 
144  145 

149  150 
148  149 
146  147 

130  131 
129  130 
128  129 

133  134 
132  133 
130  132 

135  136 
134  135 

133  134 

138  139 
136  138 
135  137 

140  141 
139  140 
138  139 

143  144 
141  143 
140  141 

145  146 
144  145 
143  144 

127  128 
126  127 
125  126 

129  131 
128  130 
127  128 

132  133 
131  132 
F30  131 

134  135 
133  134 
132  133 

137  138 
136  137 
134  136 

139  140 
138  139 
137  138 

142  143 
140  142 
139  140 

124  125 
123  124 
122  123 

126  127 
125  127 
124  126 

129  130 
128  129 
127  128 

131  132 
130  131 
129  130 

133  135 
132  134 
131  133 

136  137 
135  136 
134  135 

138  139 
137  138 
136  137 

121  122 
120  121 
119  120 

123  125 
122  124 
122  123 

126  127 
125  126 
124  125 

128  129 
127  128 
126  127 

130  131 
129  131 
128  130 

133  134 
132  133 
131  132 

135  136 
134  135 
133  134 

118  119 
117  119 
116  118 

121  112 
120  121 
119  120 

123  124 
122  123 
121  122 

125  126 
124  125 
123  124 

127  139 
126  128 
125  127 

130  131 
129  130 
128  129 

132  133 
131  132 
130  131 

116  117 
115  116 
114  115 

118  119 
117  118 
116  117 

120  121 
119  120 
118  119 

123  123 
121  123 
120  123 

124  126 
124  125 
123  134 

127  128 
126  127 
125  126 

129  130 
128  129 
127  128 

n.«  in 

113  113 
112  113 

115  116 
114  116 
114  115 

117  119 
117  118 
U6  117 

120  i:i 
119  120 
118  119 

122  123 
131  122 
120  121 

124  135 
123  124 
122  123 

126  127 
125  126 
124  126 

111  112 
110  111 

109  no 

113  114 
112  113 

111  112 

115  116 
114  115 
113  114 

117  118 
116  117 

115  117 

119  120 

118  119 
IIS  119 

121  122 

121  122 
120  121 
. 

133  125 

122  123 

TABLE  OK  INTELLIGENCE  QUOTIENTS 


207 


xni 


XIV 


0    1 

2   3 

4   5 

6   7 

0   1 

3    3 

4   5 

0 

108  109 

110  112 

113  114 

115  116 

117  118 

119  120 

121  122 

1 

108  109 

110  111 

112  113 

114  115 

116  117 

118  119 

120  121 

2 

107  108 

109  110 

111  112 

113  114 

115  116 

117  118 

119  120 

3 

106  107 

108  109 

110  111 

112  113 

1T4  115 

116  117 

118  119 

4 

106  107 

108  109 

110  111 

112  113 

114  115 

116  117 

118  119 

5 

105  106 

107  108 

109  110 

111  112 

113  114 

115  116 

117  118 

IS 

6 

104  105 

106  107 

108  109 

110  111 

112  113 

114  115 

116  117 

1 

103  104 

105  106 

107  108 

109  110 

111  112 

113  114 

115  116 

8 

103  104 

105  106 

107  108 

109  110 

111  112 

113  114 

115  116 

0 

102  103 

104  105 

106  107 

108  109 

110  111 

112  113 

114  115 

10 

101  102 

103  104 

105  106 

107  108 

109  110 

111  112 

113  114 

11 

101  102 

103  104 

105  106 

107  108 

108  109 

110  111 

112  113 

0 

100  101 

102  103 

104  105 

106  107 

108  109 

110  111 

112  113 

1 

99  100 

101  102 

103  104 

105  106 

107  108 

109  110 

111  112 

2 

99  100 

101  102 

103  104 

104  105 

106  107 

108  109 

110  111 

3 

98   99 

100  101 

102  103 

104  105 

106  107 

108  109 

109  110 

4 

98   99 

99  100 

101  102 

103  104 

105  106 

107  108 

109  110 

5 

97   98 

99  100 

101  102 

103  103 

104  105 

106  107 

108  109 

13 

6 

96   97 

98   99 

100  101 

102  103 

104  105 

106  107 

107  108 

7 

96   97 

98   99 

99  100 

101  102 

103  104 

105  106 

107  108 

8 

95   96 

97   98 

99  100 

101  102 

103  103 

104  105 

106  107 

9 

95   96 

96   97 

98   99 

100  101 

102  103 

104  105 

105  106 

10 

94   95 

96   97 

98   99 

99  100 

101  102 

103  104 

105  106 

11 

94   94 

95   96 

97   98 

99  100 

101  102 

102  103 

104  105 

0 

93   94 

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208              A  HANDBOOK  OP  M€KTA&  TESTS 

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1 

14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below, 
or  on  the  date  to  which  renewed.  Renewals  only: 

Tel.  No.  642-3405 

Renewals  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  date  due. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


Due  end  of  SPRING  Quarter   H.Mn  c  »-7o  ft 

subject  to  recall  after-    Jwi3 

4 

RFC'D  LD    JUN    6  72  -1PM  *> 

6 

JAN  17  1993 

LD  21-100 


LD21A-40m-8,'71 
(P6572slO)476-A-32 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


•46  96?  a 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


